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translator (n.)1.a program that translates one programming language into another2.someone who mediates between speakers of different languages3.a person who translates written messages from one language to another
Merriam Webster
TranslatorTrans*lat"or (?), n. [L. translator: cf. F. translateur.] 1. O esp., one who renders i one who expresses the sense of words in one language by equivalent words in another.2. (Teleg.) A repeating instrument. [Eng.]
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[Classe][Classe][Classe][Classe][Classe][Thème][Classe][ClasseHyper.][PersonneQui~] translator (n.)? [ClasseHyper.][ClasseHyper.][Domaine][Domaine][Hyper.][Dérivé][Domaine][Hyper.] translator (n.)? [Classe][ClasseHyper.][Classe][Classe][Classe][Classe][termes liés][termes liés][termes liés][Domaine][Domaine][Domaine][Domaine] - [Hyper.] -
- [Dérivé][Domaine][Syntagme][Domaine][Domaine][Hyper.][Dérivé] translator (n.)? [Classe][Classe][Caract.][Domaine][Domaine] - [Hyper.][CeQuiEst~] -
- [Dérivé][Domaine][Hyper.][Dérivé] translator (n.)?
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(Redirected from Translator)"Translators" redirects here. For the company, see .ContentsFor other uses, see .For article translations in Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Translation.Translation is the comprehension of the
of a text and the subsequent production of an
text, likewise called a "translation," that communicates the same
in another language. The text to be translated is called the , and the language that it is to be translated into is called the final product is sometimes called the target text.Translation, when practiced by relatively
individuals but especially when by persons with limited proficiency in one or both languages, involves a risk of
from the source language into the target language. On the other hand, inter-linguistic spillages have also served the useful purpose of importing
from a source language into a target language that had previously lacked a concept or a convenient expression for the concept. Translators and interpreters, professional as well as amateur, have thus played an important role in the evolution of
and .The art of translation is as old as written . Parts of the
, among the oldest known literary works, have been found in translations into several
languages of the second millennium BCE. The Epic of Gilgamesh may have been read, in their own languages, by early authors of the
and of the .Since the , developments in technology, communications and business have changed translation greatly. Once the activity of a relatively small group of clerics, scholars and wealthy amateurs working with religious or literary texts, it is now a profession with accredited schools, professional associations, and accepted standards and payscales. In particular, the advent of the
has greatly expanded the market for translation and introduced a vast array of new tools and types of work, including product , content management, and multilingual documentation. An estimated 75% of professional translators currently make their living from technical texts of various kinds.Since the 1940s, attempts have been made to
or otherwise
the translation of
texts () or to use computers as an aid to translation (). , translation is a "carrying across" or "bringing across". The
translatio derives from the
, translatum, of transfero ("I transfer"—from trans, "across" + fero, "I carry" or "I bring"). The modern ,
have generally formed their own
terms for this concept after the Latin model—after transfero or after the kindred traduco ("I bring across" or "I lead across").Additionally, the
term for "translation", μετ?φρασι? (metaphrasis, "a speaking across"), has supplied
(a "", or "word-for-word" translation)—as contrasted with
("a saying in other words", from the Greek παρ?φρασι?, paraphrasis"). Metaphrase corresponds, in one of the more recent terminologies, to "", and paraphrase to "."A widely recognized
for the practice and historic role of translation is the , which in the
is incorporated into the
of the . Discussions of the theory and practice of translation reach back into
and show remarkable . The distinction that had been drawn by the
was adopted by the English
(), who represented translation as the judicious blending of these two modes of phrasing when selecting, in the target language, "counterparts", or , for the expressions used in the source language:When [words] appear... literally graceful, it were an injury to the author that they should be changed. But since... what is beautiful in one [language] is often barbarous, nay sometimes nonsense, in another, it would be unreasonable to limit a translator to the narrow compass of his author's words: 'tis enough if he choose out some expression which does not vitiate the sense.Dryden cautioned, however, against the license of "imitation", i.e. of adapted translation: "When a painter copies from the life... he has no privilege to alter features and lineaments..." This general formulation of the central concept of translation —
— is probably as adequate as any that has been proposed ever since
and , in first-century-BCE , famously and literally cautioned against translating "word for word" (verbum pro verbo).Despite occasional theoretical diversities, the actual practice of translators has hardly changed since . Except for some extreme
in the early
period and the , and adapters in various periods (especially pre-Classical Rome, and the 18th century), translators have generally shown prudent flexibility in seeking
— "" where possible,
where necessary — for the original
and other crucial "values" (e.g., style, , concordance with
accompaniment or, in , with speech
movements) as determined from context.In general, translators have sought to preserve the context itself by reproducing the original order of , and hence
— when necessary, reinterpreting the actual
structure. The grammatical differences between "fixed-word-order"
(e.g., , , ) and "free-word-order" languages (e.g., , , , ) have been no impediment in this regard.When a target language has lacked
that are found in a source language, translators have borrowed them, thereby enriching the target language. Thanks in great measure to the exchange of
between languages, and to their importation from other languages, there are few
that are "" among the modern European languages. In general, the greater the contact and exchange that has existed between two languages, or between both and a third one, the greater is the ratio of
that may be used in translating between them. However, due to shifts in "" of words, a common
is sometimes misleading as a guide to current meaning in one or the other language. The
actual, for example, should not be confused with the
actuel (meaning "present", "current"), the
aktualny ("present", "current") or the Russian актуальный ("urgent, topical"). The translator's role as a
for "carrying across" values between
has been discussed at least since , Roman adapter of Greek comedies, in the second century BCE. The translator's role is, however, by no means a passive and mechanical one, and so has also been compared to that of an . The main ground seems to be the concept of parallel creation found in critics as early as .
observed that "Translation is a type of drawing after life..." Comparison of the translator with a
goes back at least to 's remark about
on a , while Homer himself used a .File:Ignacy Krasicki 1.JPG
If translation be an art, it is no easy one. In the 13th century,
wrote that if a translation is to be true, the translator must know both , as well as the
tha and finding that few translators did, he wanted to do away with translation and translators altogether.The first
to assume that one translates satisfactorily only toward his own language may have been , translator of the
into . According to L.G. Kelly, since
in the 18th century, "it has been axiomatic" that one works only toward his own language.Compounding these demands upon the translator is the fact that not even the most complete
can ever be a fully adequate guide in translation. , in his Essay on the Principles of Translation (1790), emphasized that assiduous
is a more comprehensive guide to a language than are dictionaries. The same point, but also including
to the , had earlier been made in 1783 by , member of 's , who was called "the last Latin poet".The special role of the translator in society is aptly described in an essay that was published posthumously in 1803 and that had been written by
— "Poland's ", , poet, encyclopedist, author of the first Polish novel, and translator from French and Greek:[T]ranslation... is in fact an art both estimable and very difficult, and therefore is not the labor and por [it] should be [practiced] by those who are themselves capable of being actors, when they see greater use in translating the works of others than in their own works, and hold higher than their own glory the service that they render to their country. ,
, translated by Translation of religious works has played an important role in history. Buddhist monks who translated the
often skewed their translations to better reflect 's very different , emphasizing notions such as .A famous mistranslation of the
is the rendering of the
word ????? (keren), which has several meanings, as "horn" in a context where it actually means "beam of light". As a result, artists have for centuries depicted
with horns growing out of his forehead. An example is 's famous sculpture. Some
feelings used such depictions to spread hatred of the , claiming that they were
with horns.One of the first recorded instances of translation in the West was the rendering of the
in the third century B.C.E. The resulting translation is known as the , a name that alludes to the seventy translators (seventy-two in some versions) who were commissioned to translate the
in . Each translator worked in solitary confinement in a separate cell, and legend has it that all seventy versions were identical. The Septuagint became the
for later translations into many languages, including , ,
and ., the
of translation, is still considered one of the greatest translators in history for rendering the
into . The
used his translation (known as the ) for centuries, but even this translation at first stirred much controversy.The period preceding and contemporary with the
saw the translation of the
into local European languages, a development that greatly affected 's split into
and , due to disparities between Catholic and Protestant versions of crucial words and passages.The
in , 's bible translation in , and the
had lasting effects on the religions, cultures and languages of those countries.See also:
(or "faithfulness") and fluency are two qualities that, for millennia, have been regarded as ideals to be striven for in translation, particularly
translation. Sometimes, especially in inexperienced hands, the two ideals are at odds. Thus a 17th-century French critic quipped about "les belles infidèles" to suggest that translations, like women, could be either beautiful or faithful, but not both at the same time."Fidelity" pertains to the extent to which a translation accurately renders the meaning of the , without adding to or subtracting from it, without emphasizing or de-emphasizing any part of the meaning, and otherwise without distorting it."Fluency" pertains to the extent to which a translation appears to a native speaker of the target language to have originally been written in that language, and conforms to the language's grammatical, syntactic and idiomatic conventions.A translation that meets the first criterion is said to be a "faithful translation"; a translation that meets the second criterion, an " translation". In the hands of an expert translator, the two qualities need not be mutually exclusive.The criteria used to judge the faithfulness of a translation vary according to the subject, the precision of the original contents, the type, function and use of the text, its literary qualities, its social or historical context, and so forth.The criteria for judging the fluency of a translation appear more straightforward: an unidiomatic translation "sounds wrong", and in the extreme case of
generated by many
systems, often results in patent nonsense with only a
value (see ). Nevertheless, in certain contexts a translator may consciously strive to produce a .
translators and translators of
texts often adhere as closely as possible to the source text. In doing so, they often deliberately stretch the boundaries of the target language to produce an unidiomatic text. Similarly, a literary translator may wish to adopt words or expressions from the source language in order to provide "local color" in the translation.In recent decades, prominent advocates of such "non-fluent" translation have included the French scholar , who identified twelve deforming tendencies inherent in most prose translations, and the American theorist Lawrence Venuti, who has called upon translators to apply "foreignizing" translation strategies instead of domesticating ones.Many non-fluent-translation theories draw on concepts from , the most obvious influence on latter-day theories of "foreignization" being the German theologian and philosopher . In his seminal lecture "On the Different Methods of Translation" (1813) he distinguished between translation methods that move "the writer toward [the reader]", i.e., fluency, and those that move the "reader toward [the author]", i.e., an extreme
to the foreignness of the . Schleiermacher clearly favored the latter approach. His preference was motivated, however, not so much by a desire to embrace the foreign, as by a nationalist desire to oppose France's cultural domination and to promote .For the most part, current Western practices in translation are dominated by the concepts of "fidelity" and "fluency". This has not always been the case. There have been periods, especially in pre-Classical Rome and in the 18th century, when many translators stepped beyond the bounds of translation proper into the realm of "". retains currency in some non-Western traditions. Thus the
epic, the , appears in many versions in the various , and the stories are different in each. Anyone considering the words used for translating into the Indian languages, whether those be
or , will be struck by the freedom that is granted to the translators. This may relate to a devotion to
passages that strike a deep religious chord, or to a vocation to instruct .[citation needed] Similar examples are to be found in
literature, which adjusted the text to the customs and values of the audience.Main article: The question of
has also been formulated in terms of, respectively, "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence". The latter two expressions are associated with the translator
and were originally coined to describe ways of translating the , but the two approaches are applicable to any translation."Formal equivalence" corresponds to "", and "dynamic equivalence" to ""."Dynamic equivalence" (or "functional equivalence") conveys the essential
expressed in a source text — if necessary, at the expense of , original
and , the source text's active vs. passive , etc.By contrast, "formal equivalence" (sought via ) attempts to render the text literally, or "word for word" (the latter expression being itself a word-for-word rendering of the
verbum pro verbo) — if necessary, at the expense of features natural to the target language.There is, however, no sharp boundary between dynamic and formal equivalence. On the contrary, they represent a spectrum of translation approaches. Each is used at various times and in various contexts by the same translator, and at various points within the same text — sometimes simultaneously. Competent translation entails the judicious blending of dynamic and formal .Common pitfalls in translation, especially when practiced by inexperienced translators, involve false equivalents such as "" and .A "back-translation" is a translation of a translated text back into the language of the original text, made without reference to the original text. Back-translation is analogous to reversing (or ) but even in mathematics such a reversal frequently does not produce a value that is precisely identical with the original. In the context of , a back-translation is also called a "round-trip translation." Comparison of a back-translation to the original text is sometimes used as a
on the original translation. But while useful as an approximate check, it is far from infallible. Humorously telling evidence for this was provided by
when he issued his own back-translation of a
version of his famous , ""; he published his back-translation in a single 1903 volume together with his English-language original, the French translation, and a "Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story," the latter including a synopsized adaptation that Twain tells us had appeared, without attribution to him, in a Professor Sidgwick's Greek Prose Composition (p. 116) under the title, "The Athenian and the Frog," and which for a time, Twain tells us, was taken for an independent
precursor of Twain's "Jumping Frog" story.In cases when a historic document survives only in translation, the original having been lost, researchers sometimes undertake back-translation in an effort to reconstruct the original text. An example involves the novel
aristocrat
composed the book entirely in
and published fragments anonymously in 1804 and 1813–14. Portions of the original French-language manuscripts we the missing fragments survived, however, in a Polish translation that was made by
in 1847 from a complete French copy, now lost. French-language versions of the complete
have since been produced, based on extant French-language fragments and on French-language versions that have been back-translated from Chojecki's Polish version.Similarly, when historians suspect that a document is actually a translation from another language, back-translation into that hypothetical original language can provide supporting evidence by showing that such characteristics as , , peculiar
structures, etc., are in fact derived from the original language.For example, the known text of the
but contains many puns which only work if back-translated into . This seems clear evidence that these tales (or at least large portions of them) were originally composed in Low German and rendered into High German by an over-metaphrastic translator.Similarly, supporters of —i.e., of the view that the
or its sources were originally written in the —seek to prove their case by showing that difficult passages in the existing
text of the New Testament make much better sense if back-translated into —that, for example, some incomprehensible references are in fact Aramaic
which do not work in Greek.Translation of
(, , , , etc.) is considered a literary pursuit in its own right. Notable in
specifically as translators are figures such as ,
and , and the
annually present prizes for the best English-to-French and French-to-English literary translations.Other writers, among many who have made a name for themselves as literary translators, include , , , ,
and .The first important translation in the West was that of the , a collection of
Scriptures translated into
between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE. The dispersed
had forgotten their ancestral language and needed Greek versions (translations) of their Scriptures.Throughout the ,
of the western learned world. The 9th-century , king of
in , was far ahead of his time in commissioning
translations of 's
and ' . Meanwhile the
frowned on even partial adaptations of the standard
of ca. 384 CE.In , the spread of
led to large-scale ongoing translation efforts spanning well over a thousand years. The
was especially effic exploiting the then newly-invented , and with the full support of the government (contemporary sources describe the Emperor and his mother personally contributing to the translation effort, alongside sages of various nationalities), the Tanguts took mere decades to translate volumes that had taken the
centuries to render.[citation needed]Large-scale efforts at translation were undertaken by the . Having conquered the Greek world, they made
versions of its philosophical and scientific works. During the , some translations of these Arabic versions were made into Latin, chiefly at
in . Such Latin translations of Greek and original Arab works of scholarship and science helped advance the development of European .File:Chaucer Hoccleve.gif The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on the example of translation into the .The first fine translations into English were made in the 14th century by , who adapted from the
in his own
and ; began a translation of the
; and completed a translation of
from the . Chaucer founded an English
tradition on
and translations from those earlier-established .The first great English translation was the
(ca. 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an underdeveloped English . Only at the end of the 15th century did the great age of English prose translation begin with 's —an adaptation of
so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation. The first great
translations are, accordingly, the
(1525), which influenced the
(1611), and ' version of 's Chronicles (1523–25). Meanwhile, in
, a new period in the history of translation had opened in
with the arrival, at the court of , of the
shortly before the fall of
to the Turks (1453). A Latin translation of 's works was undertaken by . This and ' Latin edition of the
led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of ,
and .Non-scholarly literature, however, continued to rely on adaptation. 's , 's
poets, and the
translators adapted themes by , ,
and modern Latin writers, forming a new poetic style on those models. The English poets and translators sought to supply a new public, created by the rise of a
and the development of , with works such as the original authors would have written, had they been writing in England in that day. The
period of translation saw considerable progress beyond mere
toward an ideal of
equivalence, but even to the end of this period—which actually reached to the middle of the 17th century—there was no concern for
.In the second half of the 17th century, the poet
sought to make
speak "in words such as he would probably have written if he were living and an Englishman". Dryden, however, discerned no need to emulate the Roman poet's subtlety and concision. Similarly,
suffered from 's endeavor to reduce the Greek poet's "wild paradise" to order.Throughout the 18th century, the watchword of translators was ease of reading. Whatever they did not understand in a text, or thought might bore readers, they omitted. They cheerfully assumed that their own style of expression was the best, and that texts should be made to conform to it in translation. For scholarship they cared no more than had their predecessors, and they did not shrink from making translations from translations in third languages, or from languages that they hardly knew, or—as in the case of 's "translations" of —from texts that were actually of the "translator's" own composition.File:Benjamin Jowett.JPG The 19th century brought new standards of accuracy and style. In regard to accuracy, observes J.M. Cohen, the policy became "the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text", except for any
passages and the addition of copious explanatory . In regard to style, the ' aim, achieved through far-reaching
(literality) or pseudo-metaphrase, was to constantly remind readers that they were reading a foreign classic. An exception was the outstanding translation in this period, 's
(1859), which achieved its Oriental flavor largely by using Persian names and discreet Biblical echoes and actually drew little of its material from the Persian original.In advance of the 20th century, a new pattern was set in 1871 by , who translated
into simple, straightforward language. Jowett's example was not followed, however, until well into the new century, when accuracy rather than style became the principal criterion.
presents special challenges to translators, given the importance of a text's formal aspects, in addition to its content. In his influential 1959 paper "On Linguistic Aspects of Translation", the -born
went so far as to declare that "poetry by definition [is] untranslatable".In 1974 the American poet
wrote a poem, "", which in part explores this idea. The question was also discussed in 's 1997 book, ; he argues that a good translation of a poem must convey as much as possible not only of its literal meaning, but of its form and structure (meter, rhyme or alliteration scheme, etc.).File:Catherine Winkworth.PNG Translation of a text that is sung in vocal music for the purpose of singing in another language — sometimes called "singing translation" — is closely linked to translation of poetry because most , at least in the Western tradition, is set to , especially verse in regular patterns with . (Since the late 19th century, musical setting of
has also been practiced in some , though
tends to remain conservative in its retention of
forms with or without .) A rudimentary example of translating poetry for singing is church , such as the German
translated into English by .Translation of sung texts is generally much more restrictive than translation of poetry, because in the former there is little or no freedom to choose between a versified translation and a translation that dispenses with verse structure. One might modify or omit rhyme in a singing translation, but the assignment of syllables to specific notes in the original musical setting places great challenges on the translator. There is the option in prose sung texts, less so in verse, of adding or deleting a syllable here and there by subdividing or combining notes, respectively, but even with prose the process is almost like strict verse translation because of the need to stick as closely as possible to the original prosody of the sung melodic line.Other considerations in writing a singing translation include repetition of words and phrases, the placement of rests and/or punctuation, the quality of vowels sung on high notes, and rhythmic features of the vocal line that may be more natural to the original language than to the target language. A sung translation may be considerably or completely different from the original, thus resulting in a .Translations of sung texts — whether of the above type meant to be sung or of a more or less literal type meant to be read — are also used as aids to audiences, singers and conductors, when a work is being sung in a language not known to them. The most familiar types are translations presented as subtitles projected during
performances, those inserted into concert programs, and those that accompany commercial audio CDs of vocal music. In addition, professional and amateur singers often sing works in languages they do not know (or do not know well), and translations are then used to enable them to understand the meaning of the words they are singing.A competent translator has the following qualities:familiarity with the subject matter of the ta very good knowledge of the language, written and spoken, from which he is translating (the );an excellent command of the language into which he is translating (the );a profound understanding of the
correlates betwe anda finely tuned sense of when to
(") and when to , so as to assure true rather than spurious
between the source- and target-language texts.A common misconception is that anyone who can speak a
will make a good translator. In the translation community, it is generally accepted that the best translations are produced by persons who are translating into their own , as it is rare for someone who has learned a second language to have total fluency in that language. A good translator understands the source language well, has specific experience in the subject matter of the text, and is a good writer in the target language. Moreover, he is not only
but bicultural.As with other human activities, the distinction between art and craft may be largely a matter of degree. Even a document which appears simple, e.g. a product , requires a certain level of linguistic skill that goes beyond mere technical terminology. Any material used for marketing purposes reflects on the company that produces the product and the brochure. The best translations are obtained through the combined application of good technical-terminology skills and good writing skills.Translation has served as a writing school for many prominent writers. Translators, including monks who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia and the early modern European translators of the Bible, in the course of their work have shaped the very
into which they have translated. They have acted as bridges for conveying knowledge and ideas between
and civilizations. Along with ideas, they have imported, into their own languages,
from the source languages.Main article: , or "interpretation," is the intellectual activity that consists of facilitating
, either simultaneously or consecutively, between two or among three or more speakers who are not speaking, or signing, the same language.The words "interpreting" and "interpretation" both can be used to re the word "interpreting" is commonly used in the profession and in the translation-studies field to avoid confusion with other meanings of the word "."Not all languages employ, as
does, two separate words to denote the activities of
and live-communication ( or ) translators. Even English does not always make the distinction, frequently using "translation" as a synonym of "interpreting."Main article: Machine translation (MT) is a procedure whereby a computer program analyzes a
and produces a target text without further human intervention. In reality, however, machine translation typically does involve human intervention, in the form of pre-editing and post-editing. An exception to that rule might be, e.g., the translation of technical specifications (strings of
and adjectives), using a
system.To date, machine translation—a major goal of —has met with limited success. A November 6, 2007, example illustrates the hazards of uncritical reliance on . Machine translation has been brought to a large public by tools available on the Internet, such as 's , , and . These tools produce a "gisting translation" — a rough translation that, with luck, "gives the gist" of the source text.With proper , with preparation of the
for machine translation (pre-editing), and with re-working of the machine translation by a professional human translator (post-editing), commercial machine-translation tools can produce useful results, especially if the machine-translation system is integrated with a
or .In regard to texts with limited ranges of
and simple
(e.g., ), machine translation can deliver results that do not require much human intervention to be useful. Also, the use of a , combined with a machine-translation tool, will typically generate largely comprehensible translations.Relying exclusively on unedited machine translation ignores the fact that communication in
is -embedded and that it takes a person to comprehend the context of the original text with a reasonable degree of probability. It is certainly true that even purely human-generated translations are prone to error. Therefore, to ensure that a machine-generated translation will be useful to a human being and that publishable-quality translation is achieved, such translations must be reviewed and edited by a human.
wrote that machine translation, at its best, automates the easier part of a translator' the harder and more time-consuming part usually involves doing extensive research to resolve
in the , which the
exigencies of the target language require to be resolved. Such research is a necessary prelude to the pre-editing necessary in order to provide input for machine-translation software such that the output will not be .Main article: Computer-assisted translation (CAT), also called "computer-aided translation," "machine-aided human translation" (MAHT) and "interactive translation," is a form of translation wherein a human translator creates a target text with the assistance of a computer program. The machine supports a human translator.Computer-assisted translation can include standard
and grammar software. The term, however, normally refers to a range of specialized programs available to the translator, including , , , and alignment programs.With the internet, translation software can help non-native-speaking individuals understand web pages published in other languages. Whole-page-translation tools are of limited utility, however, since they offer only a limited potential understanding of the original author' translated pages tend to be more humorous and confusing than enlightening.Interactive translations with pop-up windows are becoming more popular. These tools show one or more possible equivalents for each word or phrase. Human operators merely need to select the likeliest equivalent as the mouse glides over the foreign-language text. Possible equivalents can be grouped by pronunciation.""Translation associations , "The Translator's Endless Toil", , vol. XXVIII, no. 2, 1983, pp. 84-87. J.M. Cohen, "Translation", , 1986, vol. 27, p. 12. Andrew Wilson. Translators on Translating: Inside the Invisible Art. CCSP Press: Vancouver, 2009. Snell-Hornby, M. (2006). The turns of translation studies: new paradigms or shifting viewpoints? Philadelphia: John Benjamins, p. 133 Hutchins, W. J. (2000). Early years in machine translation: memoirs and biographies of pioneers. Amsterdam: John Benjamins^
, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 83. Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 83.^
Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 84. Typically, . Typically, .^
Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 85. Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", pp. 85-86. L.G. Kelly, cited in Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 86.^
Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 86. Cited by Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 87, from , "O t?umaczeniu ksi?g" ("On Translating Books"), in Dzie?a wierszem i proz? (Works in Verse and Prose), 1803, reprinted in , ed., Pisarze polscy o sztuce przek?adu, : Antologia (Polish Writers on the Art of Translation, : an Anthology), p. 79. The comparison was first used by the French philosopher and writer
(), who commented on the translations of the humanist Perrot Nicolas d'Ablancourt () and stated, "Elles me rappellent une femme que j'ai beaucoup aimé à Tours, et qui était belle mais infidèle". Quoted in Amparo Hurtado Albir, La notion de fidélité en traduction, Paris, Didier ?rudition, 1990, p. 231. , L'épreuve de l'étranger, 1984. Lawrence Venuti, "Call to Action", in The Translator's Invisibility, 1994. , "The Translator's Endless Toil", pp. 83-87. Crystal, Scott.
(). Communicate (: Association of Translation Companies) (Winter 2004): 5. . , : In English, Then in French, and Then Clawed Back into a Civilized Language Once More by Patient, Unremunerated Toil, illustrated by F. Strothman, New York and London, Harper & Brothers, Publishers, MCMIII [1903]. , The History of Polish Literature, pp. 193–94. J.M. Cohen, p. 12. J.M Cohen, pp. 12-13.^
J.M. Cohen, p. 13.^
J.M. Cohen, p. 14. For instance, Henry Benedict Mackey's translation of 's "" consistently omits the saint's analogies comparing God to a nursing mother, references to Bible stories such as the rape of Tamar, and so forth. A discussion of Hofstadter's otherwise latitudinarian views on translation is found in Tony Dokoupil, "Translation: Pardon My French: You Suck at This," , May 18, 2009, p. 10. For another example of poetry translation, including translation of sung texts, see . *, "Prus' Pharaoh and Curtin's Translation," , vol. XXXI, nos. 2–3 (1986), p. 135. At the dawn of European thought about , such a distinction would have been thought ludicrous. The word art derives from the Latin ars, which was a translation of the Greek τ?χνη (technē). Technē in Greece—ars in Rome and in the , and even as late as the —meant skill. It was the skill to make an object, a house, a statue, a ship, but also the skill to command an army, measure a field, sway an audience. All these skills were called arts: the art of the architect, the geometrician, the rhetorician. A skill rests upon
there was no art without rules: the architect's art has its rules, which are different from those of the sculptor, the general, the geometrician, the rhetorician. Doing anything without rules, merely from inspiration or fantasy, was not, to the ancients or to the , art: it was the antithesis of art. When, in earlier centuries, the Greeks had thought that
sprang from inspiration by , they had not reckoned it with the arts. , A History of Six Ideas, pp. 11-13. For example, in , a "translation" is "przek?ad" or "t?umaczenie." Both "translator" and "interpreter" are "t?umacz." For a time in the 18th century, however, for "translator," some writers used a word, "przek?adowca," that is no longer in use. , Pisarze polscy o sztuce przek?adu, : Antologia (Polish Writers on the Art of Translation, : an Anthology), 1977, passim.
Vashee, Kirti (2007). . ClientSide News Magazine 7 (6): 18–20. . J.M. Cohen observes (p.14): "Scientific translation is the aim of an age that would reduce all activities to . It is impossible however to imagine a literary-translation machine less complex than the human brain itself, with all its knowledge, reading, and discrimination." , Le défi des langues (The Language Challenge), Paris, L'Harmattan, 1994. See the
and , ed., Pisarze polscy o sztuce przek?adu, : Antologia (Polish Writers on the Art of Translation, : an Anthology), Poznań, Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, 1977.Berman, Antoine, L'épreuve de l'étranger, 1984, excerpted in English in Lawrence Venuti, editor, The Translation Studies Reader, 2002 (2nd edition, 2004).Cohen, J.M., "Translation", , 1986, vol. 27, pp. 12–15.Darwish, Ali, "Towards a Theory of Constraints in Translation," 1999. () et al., "Como Conversazione: On Translation," The Paris Review, 2000, no. 155, ISSN , pp. 255–312. Poets and critics , ,
and others discuss the theory and practice of translation.Gouadec, Daniel, Translation as a Profession, Amsterdam, John Benjamins, 2007, ISBN 978 90 272 1681 6., "The Translator's Endless Toil", , vol. XXVIII, no. 2, 1983, pp. 83–87. Includes a discussion of
of the , "translation"., "Prus' Pharaoh and Curtin's Translation," , vol. XXXI, nos. 2–3 (1986), pp. 127–35.Kelly, L.G. (1979). The True Interpreter: a History of Translation Theory and Practice in the West. New York, St. Martin's Press.
0-312-82057-7., The History of Polish Literature, 2nd ed., Berkeley, University of California Press, 1983, ISBN 0-520-04477-0. (2005). Translation Contract: A Standards-Based Model Solution. AuthorHouse.
1-., Translating Style: A Literary Approach to Translation—A Translation Approach to Literature, Manchester, St. Jerome, 2007, ISBN 1--2., Le défi des langues — Du g?chis au bon sens (The Language Challenge: From Chaos to Common Sense), Paris, L'Harmattan, 1994.Rose, Marilyn Gaddis, guest editor, Translation: Agent of Communication (a special issue of Pacific Moana Quarterly, 5:1), 1980., "?ber die verschiedenen Methoden des ?bersetzens", 1813, reprinted as "On the Different Methods of Translating" in Lawrence Venuti, editor, The Translation Studies Reader, 2002, 2nd edition 2004.Simms, Norman, editor (1983). Nimrod's Sin: Treason and Translation in a Multilingual World., A History of Six Ideas: an Essay in Aesthetics, translated from the Polish by , The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1980, ISBN 83-01-00824-5.Venuti, Lawrence (1994). The Translator's Invisibility. Routledge.
0-415-11538-8. This article's external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive and inappropriate external links or by converting links into references. (January 2010) at
1920 text by Flora Ross Amos from the series Columbia University studies in English and comparative literature., journal of translation at ., quarterly edited by Gabe Bokor., published three times annually by the "Center for Translation Studies"., news about translations., peer-reviewed journal by Routledge Havana Recommendation (Havana, Cuba, 13 December 2008) The Nairobi Recommendation (1976)
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