写演讲稿的格式咋写?嗯就是说开头空几格然后顶格写还是咋写?
问题描述：
写演讲稿的格式咋写?嗯就是说开头空几格然后顶格写还是咋写?
问题解答：
亲爱的同学,敬爱的老师：大家好!XXXXXXXXXXXXXX(类容）
我来回答：
剩余:2000字
开头空两格,开始就说比如尊敬的领导亲爱的同学大家晚上好,今天我演讲的题目是……
亲爱的老师,同学们：你们好!中国人民永远也不会忘记,日日本帝国主义以士兵失踪为借口,发动了震惊中外的卢沟桥事变,从此,中国人民走上了艰难的抗战征程；中国人民永远也不会忘记一个又一个不平等的条约,使中国从一个泱泱大国变成了一只任人宰割的肥羊.中国人民不会忘记,八国联军火烧圆明园,让这座世界上最辉煌壮丽的建
左下角.如下：此致敬礼
敬礼空两格写正文
《三国演义》中,刘备演绎了三顾茅庐的史话,最终请得诸葛亮出山,成就了蜀国的伟业；《西游记》中,孙悟空上演了三打白骨精的好戏,识破了妖精的奸计,保障了师傅的安全；而如今,我,三读《假如生活欺骗了你》,次次感受却大有不同.　　一读,看到了表面.也许是由于年龄的问题吧,那时我才上七年级,预习时,初读此诗,并无太深的感受,只是
日记的正文是日记的主要部分,写在星期和日期的正下方,可以顶格写,也可以内缩3至5个字母的空间.由于记载的内容通常已经发生,谓语动词多用一般过去时.但也可根据具体情况,用其它时态.如：记叙天气、描写景色,为了描写生动,可以使用现在时,以表现当时的情景.再如文后发表感想或评论可用现在时态或将来时态.记日记力求简单明了,有连
空格.其实真正写信,应该是看关系的.我每次给好盆友写信都是凭兴趣.如果给长辈或者生疏的人写讲究一下格式吧
对；对；对；对；对；对；对.七条都是对的.
机会是留给有准备的人
1、目录的话：第一卷 （只是个例子啦,写上篇下篇,第一回第二回都可以的,这个请自便啦.魔法教授这本书还是“第一学期——第一课、第二课”这么写的呢.）2、序幕可以放在“卷”里（第一卷：序 第一章 第二章……）,也可以独立出来,把它放在卷前面（序 第一卷：第一章……）.这个也是请随意.3、正文格式：就像写作文那样,段落前空
一、常用书信套语提称语,用在对方称呼后面,表示尊敬——父母：膝下、膝前、尊前、道鉴长辈：几前、尊前、尊鉴、赐鉴、道鉴师长：函文、坛席、讲座、尊鉴、道席、撰席平辈：足下、阁下、台鉴、大鉴、惠鉴同学：砚右、文几、台鉴晚辈：如晤、如面、如握、青览女性：慧鉴、妆鉴、芳鉴、淑览二、祝愿语父母：恭请福安 叩请金安长辈：恭请崇安 敬
敬爱的**、亲爱的**：（开头顶格写,重要的人放前面）·····································································································································
开头空四格 写演讲的对象,比如尊敬的领导什么的..下面就是写正文了.根据你演讲的内容,选取材料.组织文章.格式就和普通文章一样.空两格一个段落开头,主体结尾.每个部分把握好就行了.
不能顶格!只能另起一行各两个字母再写
此致顶格.敬礼居中.
如果是词内容摘要,一般都是顶格写.并在前面加上“内容摘要：”四个字.在这四字后直接写摘要的词；如果是段摘要的话,在第一行顶格写下：内容摘要：然后换行空两格开始写摘要内容.
称呼顶格,正文开头空两格
演讲稿的格式其实也就是在正文前后加上开头、结束语.开头示例：Ladies and Gentlemen ,Good afternoon!I’m very glad to stand here and give you a short speech.today my topic is “XXXXX”.I hope you
开头肯定是称呼和开场白具体内容你从网上搜范文 多的很
也许感兴趣的知识雅思作文开头段两种写法-智课
作文开头段两种写法!考试中，如果考生能写一个漂亮的开头，是可以为我们的写作加分的，下面小编为大家分享雅思作文开头段两种写法，希望大家结合练习进行掌握。Introduction 开头段引言段的目的是为了让读者了解如下几个方面：文章的主题 (the topic: A background sentence giving some background information
on the essay topic.一个能根据与论文题目给出背景信息的句子。涉及的方面(the aspect of the topic being dealt with: A more detailed sentence
linking the background sentence to the thesis.)注意，在阐述涉及话题时，应细化到阐述背景句大话题下的某个具体方面，即文章要讨论的实际内容。不同文章类型中开头段结构也会有所调整Argumentation类作者的立场 (the stand (attitude) taken by the writer to the topic)在论证性文章里，这个部分应给出作者自身的立场、观点和见解。Discussion / Report 类陈述文章的目的(state the purpose of the essay) , 如The aim/purpose of this essay is
to …在议论性论文里，该部分应提出文章的写作目的，如文章是为了解决、解释、阐述、分析或预测某问题、现象、成因、影响或趋势等。主要观点总结 (outline the main points of the essay: An outline sentence declaring
main points you are going to use to support your thesis.)用一句话简要概括文章主要观点。也就是说，一篇文章的开头其实应该涵括结尾了。这四个部分最好融入到3句话里面，且字数控制在50词左右。比如有时候第一部分和第二部分可以写成一句话，有时第三部分和第四部分则可写在一句里。注意总结主要观点的时候可以考虑用名词词组提炼主要意思。如果前三个部分太长的话，可以考虑省略第四部分。1.1 开头段实例 (Samples)1. Today people are surrounded by many kinds of advertising and this is
having an increasing effect on our lives. Do the positive effects outweigh the
negative effects?IntroductionAdvertisements have become one of the crucial factors that determines the
style and functioning of one’s life in different contexts. The force of
advertising reaches out and touches everyone living and working in the modern
world today. (描述背景 + 转述题目)For me, advertising nowadays brings more negative
influences to the public and strongly affects our daily lives, such as
irrational buying behaviours and information explosion. (个人倾向 + 主要观点)2. Older people who need employment have to compete with younger people.
What problems does this cause? And what are the solutions?IntroductionThere is a widely held perception (n. 感知) that old and young people are
fighting for a single scarce commodity: jobs (一单一稀缺商品：工作). (描述背景) Many cities
have become a front line (前线) in a generational battle (世代之争) for jobs, as older
workers increasingly compete against applicants in their 20s for positions in
most industries, including supermarkets, McDonald’s, and dozens of (许多) other
places. (转述题目)Some problems and effects such as vicious competition (恶性竞争) might
arise and from this, possible solutions will be discussed in this essay.
(交代文章写作目的)1.2 参考句型文章的主题 (1)涉及的方面 (2)Research has shown that …It is often reported that…Recent advances in … have led to…The issue of … is one which needs to be looked at carefullyIt has become apparent in recent years, that…is an issue that many people
feel strongly about.This essay will discuss the topic of…in more details.This essay will consider the problem of … and outline possible
solutions.In this essay, the argument/issue surrounding…will be examined.The arguments both for and against… will be evaluated in this essay作者的观点 (3)作者的立场 (3)However, the writer also thinks…The writer would also argue that…However, from the writer’s perspective, …However, the writer feels the question is not whether…but whether…The
writer would argue that…The writer firmly believes that…It seems to me that…The writer tends to think that…1.3 背景句练习很明显，政府的主要职责是提高公民的生活标准。(improve citizens’ living standards)媒体提供给人们所需要的从时事到娱乐新闻的各类信息。(current affairs, entertainments news)大学被认为是一个增加知识和做学术研究的地方。(conducting academic studies)从历史角度来看，人类和动物之间的总有着互相冲突的利益。(conflicting interests)教育，简单地说，就是获取知识、学习规范的行为举止、在某个特定的领域获得技术能力的过程。(gaining knowledge, learning
forms of proper conduct, acquiring technical competency)以上是小编为大家带来的雅思作文开头段两种写法总结内容，光有理论还不行，还需要大家结合练习进行掌握。
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英语写作基础知识普及
英语写作基础 第一章英语写作常识与规范第一节标点符号 1．顿号 “、 ” 英语没有顿号， 一般用逗号取代。 如： This kind of machine is widely used in India, Russia, the U.S.A. and China. (这种机器在印度、俄罗斯、美国、 中国广泛应用。) 2．书名号 汉语书名号为《》 ，表示书籍、报刊等名称。英语中不用书名号，而 是用斜体字表示，以区别于印刷体；但打字或书写时，因没有斜体字，便在 书名或刊名下划一横线。例如：I often read the newspaper---New York Times. (我经常阅读《纽约时报》这份报纸。) 3．句号 英语的句号是是实心的小圆点，即 “.”, 常用于陈述句和祈使句之后。 而汉语的句号是空心圆圈，即“。 ” 。 4．冒号 英语中的冒号一般只用来对主句进行说明、引申、解释等等，汉语中除 有上述相似用法外，更多用于直接引语的说明及一般函件的开头语。例如： The year is divided into four seasons: spring, summer, autumn and winter.(一年分为 四季：春、夏、秋、冬。) 5. 逗号 “， ” 在英语中，引起直接引语的说明以及一般函件开头的称呼语等一 类用语后都用逗号， 而不象汉语那样用冒号。 （但美国用冒号） 。逗号是英文写作 中最常用的标点符号。对中国学生而言，也是最容易出错的地方。因为以中国人 写作的思维，只要一句话意思没完，便要用逗号，而对于英文写作，只要句子结 构完整便要用句号。例如： 逗号误用： I set out for the biggest bookstore in town, at the school gate I saw a girl of my class, she was going there, too, we decided to go together, we walked, the bookstore was not far away. 正确的句子：I set out for the biggest bookstore in town. At the school gate I saw a girl of my class. She was going there, too. We decided to go together. We walked. The bookstore was not far away. (我开始去城里最大的书店。 在学校门口我看见了班里的一个女孩, 她也要去那 儿, 我们决定一起去, 我们走着,书店就在不远处。 ) 6. 分号 表示短暂而明确的停顿，主要用法有两种。一是连接两个内容相关但语 法逻辑上完整的独立分句，分句之间不用连词。分号就相当于逗号与连接词 的组合。如：The project w we were very pleased.(我们很高 兴我们终于完成了计划。) 相当于 The project was finally completed. We were very pleased. 或 The project was finally completed，and we were very pleased. 7. 省略号 英语的省略是三个实心的小圆点，位于一行的中间。英语 etc 不能和 省略号连用而汉语则可以。如： 正确的句子：There is a pen, two apples, three oranges ect in the box. 标点误用： There is a pen, two apples, three oranges…etc. in the box. 8. 引号 “” 引号用来表示文中的直接引语，英语中单引号和双引号都可用， 汉语一般只用双引号，但引号中如再加引号可用单引号。“I heard ?stop thief, stop thief ? being shouted, ” he said.1第二节 文章的总体布局 在写作时，无论是手写还是使用打字机或电脑，都应注意文章的总体布局，如题 目的写法、行文的间隔、字体字号的选择等等。题目应放在第一行的中间，第一 个单词的首字母和每一个名词、动词、形容词、副词等的首字母都要大写。题目 中的功能词如冠词、介词、并列连词、不定式小品词除了作为第一个单词首字母 要大写外，其他情景下一般要小写。但 among，between，about 等双音节、多音 节介词也可首字母大写。 题目中若有冒号、 破折号， 其后面单词的首字母应大写。 题目的结尾除了可使用问号或感叹号外，不可使用其他标点符号。如： My First Visit to the Summer Palace Dickens and David Copperfield What Can the Artist Do in the World of Today? 在正文的布局上，段落应清晰，各段的排列应保持一致。每段开头一般应向右缩 进 4 至 5 个字母的间隔。但在电脑排版中，也可左右都对齐。但在这种情况下， 段与段之间应多空一行。无论采用哪种方式，都应注意保持格式的一致。单词与 单词之间应留一个字母的间隔，每一完整句之间一般留一个或两个字母的间隔。 标点符号应书写清楚，特别应注意英文句点与中文句号之间的区别。 课堂练习 1．指出下列句子中标点符号用法上的错误并加以改正。 1) The job is difficult, however, we will try our best to finish it. 2) The
and we were overjoyed. 3) As I opened the door, he told me, that I was late. 4) The universal symptom of the suicide impulse, is depression. 5) Tom, Sarah and Mary, are going to join us on the first phase of this project. 6) An employee, who expects rapid promotion, must quickly improve his or her worth. 7) I had a heart-to-heart talk with Linda, and John. 8) We painted the room, pink. 9) Following the instruction the technician installed the machine within one hour. 10) The process may be waiting for a signal, or the process input, may be delayed by network interrupts. 2．给下面的段落加标点，并改正大小写。 you should take clothes for hot and cold climates the desert even though its in africa gets very cold at night in addition dont forget the small essentials water purifying tablets a needle and cotton a pair of sunglasses and one or two good books I also took a penknife a sleeping bag and a stove第二章 遣词造句第一节 词的类型 英语词汇极多： 《牛津英语词典》收了四十多万个词。当然并没有人认识或需要2使用这么多词。 常人为了一般的目的只用其中很小的一部分。学习用英语写作的 中国学生应先学会使用最有用也最常用的词来表达自己的思想。 有时初学者会误 用一些词，这些词往往并不全错，只是不恰当、不准确、不地道、或不生动。因 此，对初学者来讲，对选词的方法有基本的了解是有益的。 常用的词按文体来分有正式的 （formal） ，一般的（general） ，口语的（colloquial） 。 这类词主要用于正式文体，多数源于希腊和拉丁文，其特点是多音节词较多。 如下列单词，前一个是一般词汇，后者是正式词汇。 same---identical, speech---oration, learned---erudite, destroy---annihilate, stiff---rigid, try---endeavor, piece---fragment 而下列词汇前一个是口语化的词汇，后者是一般词汇 ain?t---am not， damn---very， cool---very good 另外，还应注意一些词的感情色彩，例如 country, nation, state, land 的原义有相 同之处，都相当于中文的“国家” ，但它们的涵义却很不同。country 指地区、其 人口及政府，nation 主要指人民，state 主要指政府及政治组织，land 比 country 的意思广泛些，而且文雅些，并更有感情色彩。 关于词义中国学生特别要注意一点： 不应把一个英语词的中文译法看作它的确切 意思， 如大家都知道 send 的意思是 “送” ， 便会造出这样的句子： He came to send me the letter.（应为 He brought me the letter.）, 或 I sent my friend to the station yesterday(应为 I went to the station with my friend to see him off. )再如 family 和 home 都可译为”家”, 但他们的意思很不一样:family 指亲属,而 home 指住的地方. 第二节 英语写作常见错误与分析 除了措辞不当外,在造句方面中国学生尤其是初学者也经常犯一些错误 ,如何写 出准确得体的英文句子。 句子的质量直接影响作者思想内容的表达，而一些最基 本的句子层次的错误往往会降低整篇文章的质量。 下面我们对一些在英语写作中 典型的病句实例逐一加以剖析． 一． 不一致（Disagreements） 所谓不一致不光指主谓不一致， 它还包括了数的不一致，时态不一致及代词不一 致等． 例１． When one have money, he can do what he want to. (人一旦有了钱，他就能想干什么就干什么．) 剖析：one 是单数第三人称，因而本句的 have 应改为同理，want 应改为 wants.本句是典型的主谓不一致． 改为：Once one has money, he can do what he wants (to do) 二． 修饰语错位（Misplaced Modifiers）英语与汉语不同，同一个修饰语置 于句子不同的位置， 句子的含义可能引起变化．对于这一点中国学生往往 没有引起足够的重视，因而造成了不必要的误解.例如: I believe I can do it well and I will better know the world outside the campus.剖析：better 位置不当，应置于句末． 三． 句子不完整（Sentence Fragments） 在口语中， 交际双方可借助手势语气上下文等， 不完整的句子完全可以被理解． 可3例1是书面语就不同了， 句子结构不完整会令意思表达不清，这种情况常常发生在主 句写完以后，笔者又想加些补充说明时发生． 例１There are many ways to know the society. For example by TV, radio, newspaper and so on. 剖析：本句后半部分＂for example by TV, radio, newspaper and so on.”不 是一个完整的句子，仅为一些不连贯的词语，不能独立成句． 改为： There are many ways to know society, for example, by TV, radio, and newspaper. 四．悬垂修饰语（Dangling Modifiers） 所谓悬垂修饰语是指句首的短语与后面句子的逻辑关系混乱不清． 例如： At the age of ten, my grandfather died. 这句中＂at the age of ten＂只 点出十岁时，但没有说明谁十岁时．按一般推理不可能是 my grandfather,如果 我们把这个悬垂修饰语改明确一点，全句就不那么费解了． 改为： When I was ten, my grandfather died. 例１． To do well in college, good grades are essential. 剖析：句中不定式短语“to do well in college”的逻辑主语不清楚． 改为： To do well in college, a student needs good grades. 五． 词性误用(Misuse of Parts of Speech) “词性误用”常表现为：介词当动词用；形容词当副词用；名词当动词用等． 例１． None can negative the importance of money. 剖析：negative 系形容词，误作动词。 改为： None can deny the importance of money. 六． 指代不清(Ambiguous Reference of Pronouns) 指代不清主要讲的是代词与被指代的人或物关系不清， 或者先后所用的代词不一 致。试看下面这一句： Mary was friendly to my sister because she wanted her to be her bridesmaid. (玛丽和我姐姐很要好，因为她要她做她的伴娘。) 读完上面这一句话，读者无法明确地判断两位姑娘中谁将结婚，谁将当伴娘。如 果我们把易于引起误解的代词的所指对象加以明确，意思就一目了然了。这个句 子可改为： Mary was friendly to my sister because she wanted my sister to be her bridesmaid. 例 1. And we can also know the society by serving it yourself. 剖析：句中人称代词 we 和反身代词 yourself 指代不一致。改为： We can also know society by serving it ourselves.4七．不间断句子(Run-on Sentences) 什么叫 run-on sentence?请看下面的例句。 例１． There are many ways we get to know the outside world. 剖析：这个句子包含了两层完整的意思：“There are many ways.”以及“We get to know the outside world.”。简单地把它们连在一起就不妥当了。 改为： There are many ways for us to learn about the outside world.或： There are many ways through which we can become acquainted with the outside world 八． 措词毛病(Troubles in Diction) Diction 是指在特定的句子中如何适当地选用词语的问题，囿于教学时间紧迫， 教师平时在这方面花的时间往往极其有限， 影响了学生在写作中没有养成良好的 推敲，斟酌的习惯。他们往往随心所欲，拿来就用。所以作文中用词不当的错误 比比皆是。学生所接触的词汇主要来自精读和泛读，他们所掌握的词汇有口语、 一般用语、正式用语，也有俚语、方言；有美国英语，也有英国英语。他们对同 义词或近义词的细微区别不太了解，英语词与近义汉字区别不清。例如： 误: He finally resolved the problem. 正:He finally solved the problem. resolve 的汉语意思是“使分解”、“解决”，resolve 虽有解决之意，只是解 决的不是问题，而是 contradiction 或 doubt, 解决问题应用 &solve&。 又如：The increasing use of chemical obstacles in agriculture also makes pollution. (农业方面化学物质使用的不断增加也造成了污染。) 剖析：显然，考生把 obstacles“障碍”，“障碍物”误作 substance“物质” 了。另外“the increasing use (不断增加的使用)” 应改为“abusive use(滥 用)”。 改为： The abusive use of chemical substances in agriculture also causes/leads to pollution. 而英语则有词性的变化，学生辨别词汇种类的能力不够，同一汉语意思的动词、 名词和形容词分不清，造成词汇错误。例： 误：The students complaint that there are too much homework. 正：The students complain that there is too much homework. 误：If you work hard, you will be sure to success. 正：If you work hard, you will be sure to succeed.九．累赘(Redundancy) 言以简洁为贵。写句子没有一个多余的词；写段落没有一个无必要的句子。能用 单词的不用词组；能用词组的不用从句或句子。如： In spite of the fact that he is lazy, I like him. 本句的“the fact that he is lazy”系同谓语从句，我们按照上述“能用词组 的不用从句”可以改为：In spite of his laziness, I like him.5例１．For the people who are diligent and kind, money is just the thing to be used to buy the thing they need. 剖析：整个句子可以大大简化。 改为： Diligent, caring people use money only to buy what they need. 十．不连贯(Incoherence) 不连贯是指一个句子前言不对后语，或是结构上不畅通。这也是初学者常犯的毛 病。 例１． The fresh water, it is the most important things of the earth. 剖析：The fresh water 与逗号后的 it 不连贯。It 与 things 在数方面不一致。 改为： Fresh water is the most important thing in the world. 十一．综合性语言错误(Comprehensive Misusage) 所谓“综合性语言错误” ，是指除了上述十种错误以外，还有诸如时态，语态， 标点符号，大小写等方面的错误。 例 1． Today, Money to everybody is very importance, our’s eat, cloth, live, go etc. 针对学生来说，他们在作文中常犯的语法错误的类型有：名词单复数变化错误； 时态不一致谓语或句型出错，句子不完整；介词、冠词遗漏等。 (1) 时态、人称和数用错 汉语动词无时态、人称和数的变化，而对英语动词来说，这些都至关重要。例： 误：They said they can complete the work in three months. 正：They said they could complete the work in three months. 误：My father is a work and my mother is teachers. 正：My father is a worker and my mother is a teacher. （2) be 动词遗漏 在主系表结构中， 汉语中没有动词的句子是允许的，英语中每个完整的句子都必 须有动词来承担谓语，如： “我累了。 ”这个句子没有动词作谓语，而用形容词， 但英语形容词不能作谓语，一定要写成：I'm tired. 误：He will sure to come and help me. 正：He will be sure to come and help me. (3) 句子不完整 有的考生因为对句子结构认识模糊，所以出现只写半句的现象，这也是造成 失分的原因之一。 误：Because the kids thought their wages were too low. 正：Because the kids thought their wages were too low, they demanded a high pay. 误：While waiting for the bus.6正：While waiting for the bus, he talked with the little girl. (4) 介词、冠词遗漏 还有一些考生因为没有熟练掌握介词或者冠词的用法，也会出现明显的错误，造 成丢分现象。 误：Because his mistake several people died. 正：Because of his mistake several people died. 误：I have never seen such beautiful picture. 正：I have never seen such a beautiful picture. 课堂练习： 1．选择最恰当的词汇 1）He was born into a revolutionary __________. (home, family) 2）Would you like to stop by my _________ (family, home) and have a cup a of tea? 3）During the fighting a few soldiers were _________ (injured, wounded). 4）In the accident his right leg was ________ (injured, wounded). 5）Later he ________ (found, found out) that the real cause of the fire was negligence on the part of the man on duty. 6）n arriving in the ancient city he _______ (found, found out) that it was very quiet and beautiful. 7）o you know the _________ (cause, reason) why he has resigned? 8）The main _________ (cause, reason) of the stoppage was the insufficient supply of raw material. 9）Empress Dowager Cixi was ________ (famous, notorious) for her cruelty. 10）The enemy troops were driven back when they ________ (attempted, tried) to cross the border. 2．改正下列句子中的错误 1) Much more money is offered in Hong Kong, you can enjoy a more comfortable life there than in some other cities. 2) Because the operator was careless. The new computer was damaged. 3) One should sift the flour before they make the pie. 4) A group of we manages will fly to the convention next Saturday. 5）.I looked at the tree I had felled with my hands in my pockets. 6）The hostess served toast to her guest that was badly burned. 7）The dealer sold the Mercedes to the town banker with leather seats. 8）She laughed as John raged with delight. 9）He returned the bike to a neighbor that was broken. 10）To get up early, the clock was set at six.第三章 文章的总体结构及框架第一节英汉表达的差异7中国人与西方人看问题的方法的确在许多方面存在着差异， 而且这种差异的的确 确在束缚着中国学生，成为他们英文写作中的拦路虎，使他们不能畅所欲言，不 能准确而简洁地表达思想。 首先，让我们关注一下英美人与中国人思维方式的不 同。英美人的思维方式是直线式的，他们在遣词造句谋篇上遵循着从一般 （general）到具体（specific），从概括（summarize）到举例（exemplify）， 从整体（whole）到个体（respective）的原则。请看短文： Soccer is a difficult sport．（1）A player must be able to run steadily without rest． （2） Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head． （3） Players must be willing to bang into and be banged into by others．（4） They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles． 上面的这则短文中，主题句（main idea sentence）也就是文章的中心是第一句， （1）（2）（3）（4）句是用来说明主题句的。 而在汉语中，我们习惯于先分后总，先说原因后说结果，即所谓的“前因后果”， 如果要表达相同的意思，我们通常这样说： 足球运动员必须能不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受 双脚和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球运动是一项难度大的运动。 再比如写下面一则便条，因你母亲突然生病，周末你不能和汤姆去跳舞了，你找 了舞跳得很好的时黛来代替你，并表示抱歉。 此英语便条为： July 6，2002 Dear Tom， I am sorry to inform you that I won't be able to go to dance with you this weekend． My mother is suddenly taken ill．In order not to disappoint you，I have asked Shi Dai to take my place．She is a better dancer，I think．My regrets． Joe8从便条中可以看出，英语表达先“果”―I won't be able to go to dance with you this weekend 后“因”―my mother is suddenly taken ill，即所谓的“先 果后因”。 一般来说，在单个句子中，英语句子也是先中心，也就是将主要思想、结果放在 句首，放在主句里表达；而汉语正相反，一般为后中心，主要的观点、信息往往 放在句末。如： He had to stay at home yesterday because he was ill．因为他病了，昨天 他不得不呆在家里。 Tragedies can be written in literature since there is tragedy in life．生 活中既然有悲剧，文学作品就可以写悲剧。 所以说，大学生用英文写作时，就要按照英美人的思维模式进行思考，也就是说 要学会用英语进行思维，避免写出中国式的英语。 二、接下来，让我们看一下英汉句子结构的特点。英语属印欧语系，汉语属汉藏 语系，两种语言相距甚远，英语结构紧凑，汉语结构松散。语言学家以“竹节句 法”来比喻英语句子，即英语句子是由断不可缺的各种连接词衔接而成，宛如节 节相连的竹子；而汉语句子则被比喻为“流水句法”，所谓的流水指少用乃至不 用连接词仍行文流畅。所以说，英语重形和，汉语重意和。英语句子中如果少了 连接词如 or，but，if，so，because，when，although ， in order that，so that，所要表达的意思就支离破碎了，而汉语如没连接词，只从句子本身的意思 就可以把概念或关系表达清楚。如： Conquer the desires，or they will conquer you．你如不能战胜欲念，欲念 将要战胜你。 An English man who could not speak Chinese was once traveling in China．一 个英国人，不会说中国话，有一次在中国旅行。9三、就是因为英语中各种连接词与替代词的广泛使用，使得英语中出现“多枝共 干”式的长句，复合句；汉语则常用短句，简单句。请看下面一个英语长句以及 其汉意。 It was on a Sunday evening，when he was lying in the orchard listening to a blackbird and composing a love poem，that he heard the gate swing to，and saw the girl coming running among the trees，with the redcheeked， stolid Joe in swift pursuit．一个星期日的傍晚，他正躺在果园里，一面在 听画眉鸟的啁啾，一面在写一首爱情诗，忽然听得大门砰地关上，接着看见那姑 娘从树丛里奔出来，后面飞跟着那呆头呆脑的红脸的乔。 这是个英语强调句，其重心是：he heard the gate swing to and saw the girl coming running among the trees．，而 when he was lying in the orchard listening to a blackbird and com posing a love poem 是一个时间状语从句， 这两个句子通过 it was．．．that．．．这个强调句型巧妙地合为一个复合长 句，整个句子简单明了，结构紧凑，若用汉语表达则须分成好几个短句。再如： The president said at a conference dominated by questions on yesterday's election results that he could not explain why the Republicans had suffered such a widespread defeat，which in the end would deprive the Republican Party of long-held superiority in the House．在一次记者招待 会上，问题集中于昨天的选举结果，总统就此发了言。他说他不能理解为什么共 和党遭到了这样大的失败。 这种情况最终会使共和党失去在众议院长期享有的优 势。 这个英语长句是由一个带有分词短语的主句， 两个宾语从句和一个非限制性定语 从句组成，整个句子的主干简单明了：The president said．．．that．．．．， 若用汉语来表达，须把此长句拆开分成三个单句来分别叙述。 四、英语的另一个显著特点是被动句多。英语重物称，常常选择不能施行动作或 无生命的词语作主语，由于这些“无灵”物称充当主语，使得被动句大兴其道。 在英语被动句里，不必强调动作的施行者，就将其置于句尾由 by 连接；不必、10不愿或不便言明动作的施行者，就干脆将其省略。相对而言，汉语习惯于人称化 的表达，主语常常是能施行动作或有生命的物体，所以汉语中主动句多。请看例 句： It has been known for a long time that there is a first relationship between the heart and the liver．长期以来，大家知道心脏与肝脏的关系是最主要的。 The famous hotel had been practically destroyed by the big fire．大火 几乎使这家有名的旅馆全部毁灭。 They were given a hearty welcome．他们受到热烈欢迎。 五、英语的又一显著特点是其丰富的时态。不同的语言具有不同的时态，有的语 言甚至很少或没有时态， 汉语基本上就是借助词汇来表示各种时间和动作的，汉 语动词除了只有“着”、“了”、“过”的若干说法与英语的进行时、完成时或 过去时相对外，别无其他与英语相对应的时体形式；而英语不仅有时态，而且种 类繁多（共有 16 种时态），区分细微，习惯性强。英语就是通过这些固定的语 法手段将动作的进行过程与状况描绘得更准确更精细， 有时甚至能表达说话人的 感情色彩。如： You're always asking me such questions！你老是问我这样的问题！（用现在 进行时表示厌烦） I am now living in a very pleasant flat．我现在住在一间非常舒适的公寓 里。（用现在进行时表示满意） 所以，传递同样的意思，英语只要选用合适的时态就可以了，汉语则必须使用词 汇手段。又如： It has been noted that those who live，or have lived，in the shadow of death bring a mellow sweetness to everything they do．人们已经注意到大 凡受到死亡威胁的人或是死里逃生的人对于他们所干的任何事总是兴趣盎然。 六、从词汇方面讲，英汉两种语言也有很大差异。就词组而言，英语中的词组或 短语可谓林林总总，丰富多彩，有名词短语、动词短语、形容词短语、介词短语、11分词短语、不定式短语与独立结构等，它们的语法功能不一而足，可作主语、谓 语、宾语、定语、状语与表语等。如： Marriage may be compared to a cage：the birds outside despair to get in and those within despair to get out．婚姻好比鸟笼，外面的鸟儿想进进不 去，里面的鸟儿想出出不来。（不定式短语 to get in，to get out 作状语） I am utterly in the dark about the matter．我对这件事完全不知道。（介 词词组 in the dark 作表语） Christmas is coming up．圣诞节就要到了。（动词短语 come up 作谓语） 相比之下， 汉语更偏重以单音节或多音节的单词为其基本的句法成分，而且其短 语用法十分有限。 语言的形成与发展深受本国、本土、历史、地理、风土人情等各方面的影响，英 语、汉语也不例外。英语中某些词的含义并不完全与汉语对等，比如 lover 这个 词，大多数中国人认为是“爱人”（丈夫或妻子），其实在西方 lover 指的是情 夫或情妇；再比如 First Lady，在英美等国指的是总统夫人或州长夫人，而在 中国常会被误解，认为是“原配夫人”，说不定还会有“二奶”、“三姨太”之 类；又如 intellectual 这个词，在英美等国其范围较小，只包括大学教授等有 较高学术地位的人，不包括普通的大学生，而多数中国人认为 intellectual 就 是“知识分子”，而且汉语中的知识分子所指范围很广，大学教师、中学教师、 大学生、医生、工程师、翻译人员以及一切受过大学教育的人都可以称为知识分 子。 此外英语中的许多词常常一词多义，它们所表达的各个含义，分别与汉语中几个 不同的词或词组相对应，所以，在用英文写作时，一定要慎重地选词用词，以期 贴切地表达思想。 第二节 段落的基本结构 段落是文章的基本构成成分， 其作用是围绕文章的主题或中心思想从不同角度进 行有组织的、逻辑性强的说明或阐述。段落由一系列围绕同一主题的句子组成。12当新的主题出现时， 就应开始新的段落。 段落一般由三部分构成： 主题句 （topic sentence）、支撑句（supporting sentence）或扩展句（developing sentence） 和结尾句（concluding sentence）。请看下面的一篇短文： What is a topic sentence? The topic sentence introduces the paragraph. What does it do? It tells the reader what your paragraph will be about. Example: There are three reasons why I want to learn English. One reason is that English has become an international language. It is now used by most international companies, including the company where I work, for business communication. Another reason why I want to learn English is that I can travel to English-speaking countries. The United States, England, Australia and many other countries all use English as their primary language. Finally, I want to learn English because I plan to move to the U.S. in the future. I will become a manager for my company soon. For all these reasons, I am very excited about learning English. ANALYSIS: What are you going to tell the reader about? Topic Sentence: There are three reasons why I want to learn English. 文章中的第一句就是段落的主题句，顾名思义，段落的主题句是表达该段 落主题或中心思想的句子， 段落的其他句子都是对该主题句的进一步扩展 或论证。所以，写好主题句往往是写好文章的关键。在构思主题句时，应 注意两个常见的问题，一是主题句太空泛，没有具体内容；二是因一个段 落中出现一个以上的主题句而使得段落的中心内容不明确。 段落的主题句 一般位于段落的开头，尤其是对议论文更是如此。 同样是这篇文章，我们再来看一下它的支撑句。Supporting SentencesWhat are supporting sentences? supporting sentences come after the topic sentence, to explain your topic sentence. The supporting sentences with their supporting details make up the body of a paragraph.13What do supporting sentences do? They give information to develop and support the main idea of the paragraph. How do I write supporting sentences? You should give information, facts, details, and examples. supporting sentences often answer the question &Why?& Example: There are three reasons why I want to learn English. One reason is that English has become an international language. It is now used by most international companies, including the company where I work, for business communication. Another reason why I want to learn English is that I can travel to English-speaking countries. The United States, England, Australia and many other countries all use English as their primary language. Finally, I want to learn English because I plan to move to the U.S. in the future. I will become a manager for my company soon. For those reasons, I want to learn English. ANALYSIS: Why do you want to learn English? Main point: because English has become an international language 一篇文章的主体，除了要有支撑句外，还需一些细节（details）的支撑。 What are details? Details come after the main points, to explain your point, or give extra information about the main point. The details fill out the body of a paragraph and make it more clear. What do details do? They give extra information to support your main points. How do I write details? You should give details, and examples. Details often answer the question &How?& Example: There are three reasons why I want to learn English. One reason is that English has become14an international language. It is now used by most international companies, including the company where I work, for business communication. Another reason why I want to learn English is so that I can travel to English-speaking countries. The United States, England, Australia and many other countries all use English as their primary language. Finally, I want to learn English because I plan to move to the U.S. in the future. I will become a manager for my company soon. For those reasons, I want to learn English. ANALYSIS: Main point: English has become an international language Detail: It is now used by most international companies Detail: It is used by the company I work for Main point: I want to travel to English-speaking countries Detail: The United States uses English as the primary language. Detail: England uses English as the primary language. Detail: Australia uses English as the primary language. Detail: many other countries use English as the primary language. Main point: I plan to move to the U.S. in the future Detail: I will become a manager for my company 一篇文章要有始有终，到了文章的结束部分，往往会出现结尾句。Closing Sentence (Conclusion)What is the closing sentence? The closing sentence is the last sentence in a paragraph. What does it do? It restates the main idea of your paragraph. It tells the reader what you were writing about. How do I write a closing sentence? Restate the main idea of the paragraph using different words. Example: There are three reasons why I want to learn English. One reason is that English has become an international language. It is now used by most international companies, including the company where I work, for business15communication. Another reason why I want to learn English is so that I can travel to English-speaking countries. The United States, England, Australia and many other countries all use English as their primary language. Finally, I want to learn English because I plan to move to the U.S. in the future. I will become a manager for my company soon. For all these reasons, I am very excited about learning English. ANALYSIS: What did you tell the reader about? Closing Sentence: For all these reasons, I am very excited about learning English. Conclusion This is your last sentence, therefore the most important. This will be the sentence that is most fresh in the readers' mind after they put the paragraph down. A good way to form your conclusion is to reform the introductory paragraph in reverse form. In other words, have the conclusion contain the following, in the order written: Restate your topic sentence, but in different words than before. Close with a general statement that reflects insight on your topic. 结尾句不是主题句的简单重复，而是对它的扩展与总结。 课堂练习 1．找出下列段落中的主题句。 Lying in Bed Lying in bed can be dangerous to your health. Once people believed that staying in bed was best cure for illnesses or injuries, but doctors who have studied the effects of bed rest are rewriting the medical textbooks. The harmful effects of bed rest were first noticed during World War II. Some field hospitals were not equipped to give much nursing care to the wounded soldiers. As soon as possible after surgery, the nurses stopped bathing them ad bringing them their meals. The results were surprising: the soldiers getting less care recovered sooner and better than those elsewhere who were permitted to remain lying in bed without stirring. Books Perhaps the highest use of books is not as sources of information abut nations, people, or foreign lands, but as friends. Reading is one of the most effective means of getting away from disturbing, and unalterable circumstances. Intimate association with noble works, whether literary, philosophic, or artistic, is a promoter of thought, a refuge from almost all the miseries of life. Walking I take a walk every day. Walking makes me feel better because it strengthens my muscles and gives me a good appetite. Walking also relaxes my mind, because it is rhythmical and noiseless, and requires no conscious thought. Walking is, for me,16excellent physical and mental relaxation and exercise. 2．分析判断下列段落 A University Professor A university professor has many duties. 2In the classroom, he or she lectures to the students and answers questions. 3If the professor is a science instructor, he or she also conducts laboratory experiments. 4During office hours, students are free to visit the professor to get help on difficult material or problems. 5In addition, a professor may often work for many hours in laboratory doing a research project. 6 Another professor might spend his or her time writing a scholarly paper for a professional journal. 7Still another one might spend time writing a book. 8In conclusion, a professor is always a very busy person.1第 一 句 是 __________________ 第八句是___________________第 二 --- 七 句 是 ________________第三章 写作前的准备工作 第一节 酝酿 （Brainstorming）和归类（Grouping）酝酿指的是就某一特定的主题进行构思，尽可能列出与此主题相关的事 实、观点、想法、事例、感觉等。在列举时，不必用完整的段落，一般是 一连串的关键词、短语或主题句。这时，不需考虑整体的篇章结构，也不 用担心语法、拼写等，关键是别漏掉与该主题有关的重要的人或事。如， 要求以“job” （职业）为主题进行酝酿，你可能列举哪些相关事物呢？ pay scales jobs in health care private industry I have had three jobs computers changing many jobs discrimination citizens against senior commuting to work health hazards on some jobs unemployment pensions jobs overseas owning small businesses blue collar jobs military, government jobs college training for jobs changing jobs and careers job interviewschanges in the future job market husband and wife both working jobs in socialist countries women in “men?s” jobs unions17jobs for immigrants reasons why people change jobs temporary jobs working while going to college boring jobs jobs in entertainment forty working hours a weekvacations health insurance counseling for jobs at college minimum wages dangerous jobs在正式写作前， 除了对所写的主题或题目进行酝酿，列出可能包括的想法和内容 外，还需对其进行组织和整理，最常用的方法便是归类（Grouping）。正式写作 时由于篇幅、时间、主题等因素的要求，对某一主题所酝酿的内容，恰当取舍， 保留切题的部分。如对上述 job 的内容，按以下方面归类： Types of jobs Problems with jobs Rewards of jobs Preparing for jobs Others 第二节 列提纲（Outline） 在学写英语文章过程中，很多人的作文条理不清，内容混乱，得分率 低，究其原因，多半无提纲指引所致。 列提纲有什么好处呢？ 它能组织思想， 帮你构思内容， 理清思路。 虽然比不列提纲动手行文晚了些时间， 但磨刀不误砍柴工。有了提纲，就能收到事半功倍的效果。 怎样编列提纲呢？ 1．首先要理解题目和主题句。 找出主题句或提示句的关键词，掌握一段的主题，根据主题思想来确定要有 哪几个论点来阐述本段主题，然后构思全段内容，这是编列提纲前的准备过程。 2．段落只有一个论点的提纲列法： 有的段落其主题句所含的主题思想简单，只需要一个论点来阐述，其主题句18或主题句的关键词就是该段的提纲，这样的段落叫主题句段落。例如某作文 “My Ideal Jobs” 第一段主题句为： people have different ideal jobs， 关键词是 ideal jobs。该关键词就是该段之提纲，行文时开门见山，直接写 出主题句，接着举例说明，该段可以这样扩展： People have different ideal jobs. Some may want to be a doctor，a teacher or a scientist. Some may want to be a worker, a peasant farmer or a solider and so on. 3. 多层次提纲列法: 有的主题句需要几个论点来阐述,有的大论点包含小论点,这种段落的提纲是 多层次的,需要进行层次安排。根据主题思想，可考虑分哪几个论点来阐述，各 论点用什么材料或例子，哪个论点在先，哪个论点在后，哪个大论点还要包括哪 些小论点。 大小论点分别用不同层次的标题列出， 同一层次标题的语法结构相同， 并用同类型的标号依次标出。 例如 “My Ideal Job” 为题， 第二段 My job is?(for example, teaching)?其提纲可以是: (1)Teaching is very important in spreading human knowledge and pushing the society forward. (2)Teaching is my interest and pleasure. A. A teacher has long vacation. a. I can travel during the vacations. b. I can write articles. c. I can arrange my own time. B. Living among the young people makes me young forever. 4. 含有众多材料的段落提纲列法: 有些段落根据主题思想要用很多材料或例子来叙述.在列提纲时， 要选择有代 表性的材料和例子予以归类，按其类别列纲，如 Topic Sentence 为：I make preparations for a trip to the United Stats 的提纲如下： (1) Getting the necessary documents a. Passport b. Visa (2) Making financial arrangements (3) Buying clothes (4) Taking care of medical requirements (5) Packing A. Suitcase b. Bags 记叙文，描写文提纲列法：议论文遵循逻辑顺序（如上所述） ，而记叙文应按事 物发生的先后顺序即时序列纲， 描写文则按所处空间位置关系（如前后左右上下 等关系）列纲，如记叙文 A Spring Outing 的提纲如下： (1) Spring on Sunday, the 20th of April A. Setting out early on bikes across the fields B. Seeing the beautiful scenes (2) At 10a.m. Arriving at the foot of Yun Long Hill A. Climbing the hill and having a picnic near the top B. Enjoying the landscape on the top19(3) At 4p.m. returningMy Hometown (1)Geographic location A. location B. Surroundings a. Circled by mountains b. Passed by a river in front c. Covered with trees at back (2)The town’s layout A. Buildings a. Low houses b. A few high buildings B. The streets a. The main cement street b. The other stone roads C. An early morning scene of my hometown a. Women washing by the river b. Farmers working in the fields 因为段落具有单一性（只有一个主题） 、连贯性、统一性的特点，所以，所列 提纲均为阐述主题这一目标，任何与主题无关的都不得列入。 列提纲才能扣准主题，不列提纲容易跑题，列不列提纲文章成色大不一样。如 文章题目为 What would happen if there were no power 的作文。有人没列提 纲在第一段主题句 Ever since early this century electricity has become an essential part of our modern life 后写道：We could not work，live and study without electricity。该段的扩展与该段的主题不符，这样的内容该放在第二 段，这样写，使第一段不切题，使第二段无话可说。第三段仅有一提示词 Therefore。虽只有一个词，根据前两段的内容，这段应进行总结，得出结论， 显然应该这样来扩展：Therefore, we should make good use of electricity and never waste power. 但有人却写成 Therefore, we could not leave power. There were no power there were no modern life. 根据前两段内容，这段话应放在 第二段，所以写成这样，显然是因没有能通篇考虑，构思和周密安排。如果先列 个提纲，第一段用什么素材来阐述主题句，第二段怎样写才能切题，各自分哪几 个小论点来写，根据前两段内容，第三段应得出什么结论，就不会犯上述跑题的 错误了。 相反，列了提纲，文章就容易写得切题。有人对该题第二段主题句 If there were no electric power 列提纲如下： (1)Stopping wheels and ceasing of many industries (2)Falling apart of world transportation system (3)The worst effect on world communication system (4)The impossibility of our modern world 根据提纲，该段可这样扩展： If there were no electricity, our modern world would be in trouble. For one thing, all wheels would stop because the motors that power the for another, many, if not all, of our industries would cease20production. All world transportation system would fail apart and the worst effect would be felt on the world communication system. Thus, our modern world would be impossible without electricity. 列提纲常用的模式有：时间法（ Chronological Patten ） ，空间法（ Spatial Pattern ） ， 由 面 及 点 法 （ General-to-Specific Pattern ） ，由点及面法 （Specific-to-General Pattern） ，以及几种方法相结合的综合法（Combining Pattern） 。第四章 好段落的特点好段落的基本特点主要体现在两个方面：一是思想内容上的整体性，即每一个 段落只能围绕一个主题思想或中心内容进行展开，避免出现多个主题，给读者造 成理解上的混乱。 二是段落的连贯性，即同一篇文章的各个段落在组织安排上既 有内在的逻辑联系，思想内容紧扣文章的主题，同时，段落与段落之间或段落内 部句子之间在形式上也能体现相互联系的特点。 第一节 段落的整体性（Unity） 段落的整体性是就内容而言， 要求段落的每一句都与该段落的中心内容有关，中 心主题往往由一个中心句点出，即所谓的主题句。 我们来看一篇以＂Trees＂为题目的作文： Trees are man's friends. We can see trees everywhere. We plant trees every year. We can make tables with trees. Trees also give us fruits to eat. I like to eat fruits very much. 该段的主题句是 Trees are man's friends, 写作中心应围绕＂friends＂， 也就是树的用途展开。 但学生没有从 friends 入手阐明主题，而是绕圈子说了些 无关紧要的话，第一、二、五展开句偏离了树的用途这个主题，而是说我们到处 可以看见树木；每年都种树；喜欢吃水果等；而且段落框架松散，这样就属于主 题句抓不住，中心思想不明确，而且句型单调。英汉不同的语篇思维模式是造成不切题的直接原因。 一些外国人认为东方人写作善用迂回法， 也就是总绕着主题的外围转， 而不从主题入手展开讨论。汉语语篇的思维模式是中国历史文化的产物， 人们认为这种方式含蓄、委婉，容易使人接受，而英美人则喜欢开门见山的叙述主题；所 以我国学生进行英语写作时， 由于受汉语语篇思维模式的影响，阐述时不从主题 入手，不能紧扣主题进行写作，致使文章主题不明确，观点不够鲜明。再来看改 写后的段落： Trees are man's friends. They provide man with timber, fruits and seeds. With timber, man can build houses and make furniture. Fruits are the food, which is necessary to us every day. As for seeds, they can be used to extract oil. 这样就克服了前面所犯错误，紧紧围绕了主题句来展开，算是一篇好的作文 了 第二节 段落的连贯性（Coherence） 段落的连贯性主要体现在思想内容的安排和段落/句子之间的衔接两个方面。在 内容的安排上，关键是掌握所写内容的顺序，先写什么，后写什么，依据的是什 么标准等。这些问题作者在进行写作构思时就应弄清楚。在段落的写作中，可以21运用的方法和技巧很多，如：空间法、时间法、对比法、因果法等等。 （将在后 一章中介绍） ，但无论采用什么方法，在具体的写作中都应注意内容安排上的逻 辑关系，保证各句子间在内容上紧密相连。 在英文写作中， 段落的连贯性往往通过段落与段落之间或段落内部的句子与句子 之间语言形式上的衔接来实现。常见的衔接手段有以下几种： 1）照应 （references） ： 即通过代词来指代上下文的某个名词、短语或句子，从而达到衔接的目的，如： Low employee spirit is damaging our productivity. This problem needs immediate attention. 2)关键词的重复（repetition of key words） 指的是在文章中重复运用某些主题/关键词，达到突出主题，衔接上下文的目的。 关键词的重复包括原词重复和同义/近义词重复两种方式，后一种方式不仅能起 到衔接作用，还能给读者以新鲜感。例如： Overuse and drought have depleted our water supply critically. Because of our depleted supply, we need to enforce strict water-conservation measures. 3）过渡词 （transitional words/connectors）的运用： 过渡词包括一些起衔接作用的连接词、副词、介词（短语）和动词，是一种最常 用的衔接手段。在使用时应注意，每一个连词在意义上都代表某种逻辑关系，因 此，该连词所连接的句子在内容上应符合其代表的逻辑关系，例如， “but” ， “however” ， “on the other hand”等表示的是一种对应或转折关系，若连接的 句子是一种并列或递进的关系， 就属于连词误用。虽然过渡词是一种很常见的衔 接手段，但使用时一定要慎重，否则就不能正确表达意思。下面将一些常用的过 渡词或短语列出来，供初学写作者参考：Transitions and Connective Phrases（过渡词及连接短语）Conjunctions （ 连 接 词） and but or for nor neither so yet To introduce a topic （引 出主题） as for concerning with regard to with respect to To Summarize （ 总 结） in all in a word in brief briefly in other words in short in summary that is To Contrast（对比） conversely however instead in spite of that anyhow To Show Purpose（显示目 的） in order that in order to so thatTo Show Cause and Effect （ 表 达 因 果 关 系） accordingly as a consequenceTo Compare（比较） by comparison here again in the same way in a similar manner likewiseTo Explain, Give Reasons （ 作 解 释） actually admittedly22as a result consequently for this reason hence it follows that so/so that then therefore thussimilarly so too as also equallyon the contrary on the other hand otherwise rather than still yetbecause certainly for example in fact indeed really of course since that isTo Show Various To Add Information Conditions（表达不同的 and Reasons（补充）条件） add to this in this event again in these circumstances also under such besides circumstances equally this (that) being so further provided that furthermore in spite of in addition none/nevertheless moreover at the same time once more even if then too if too unless yet again otherwise yet another although even though though despiteTo Show Conviction （表达肯 定性） after all at least at the same time apparently even so evidently certainly conceivably conclusively doubtless no doubt perhaps possibly presumably probably surely undoubtedlyTo Show Concession （ 表 达让步） admittedly after all all the same at any rate granted however in any case in spite of it is true that nevertheless obviously of course still to be sureTo Show Chronological Order （时间法） after that afterwards later shortly subsequently concurrently in the meantime in the meanwhile now simultaneously when/while/wasfirst, second, etc. formerly earlier previously before that then already at last at length by that time finallyTo List or Show Logical Order（举例 或表示逻辑次序） for example for instance in particular to illustrate the one ... the other this ... that these ... those here ... thereeither ... or neither ... nor whether ... or though ... yet wherever ... there since ... then the more ... the more not only ... but also4）过渡句/段的运用： 有时， 段落与段落之间还可通过整个句子甚至段落来衔接， 达到承上启下的目的。23第五章 段落的展开段落的发展技巧较常用的有以下几种：按时间展开，按空间展开，按过程展开， 举例和归纳，类比和对比，分类，原因和结果。下面一一阐述。 第一节 按时间展开 当写记叙文（narrative writing）时，常按时间顺序展开，先发生的事先讲， 后发生的事后写，这样文章的条理清楚，明白易懂。如写：Topic: A Typical Freshman’s Activities on a Typical Day（大学新生一天的活动）所列的提 纲： A. Early morning activities 1. Getting up 2. Washing and dressing 3. Tidying up bedroom 4. Breakfast 5. Collecting books and notes B. Late morning activities 1. English class 2. Studying in library 3. Law class C. Afternoon activities 1. Lunch in student canteen 2. Physical exercises 3. Studying in the classroom D. Early evening activities 1. Supper 2. Studying in the classroom/part-time campus job E. Late evening activities241. Snacking in coffee shop/ Relaxing with roommates and watching TV news reports 2. Reviewing English notes 3. Undressing and washing 4. Going to bed 常用衔接词和短语： 首环节：first, at first, first of all, in the first place, to begin with 中间环节：second, secondly, in the second place, next, afterwards, after that, then, later, another, third, thirdly, still another, in addition, beside, furthermore 末环节：lastly, at last, finally, eventually, in the end第二节 按空间顺序展开我们有时需要对一个地方进行一番描述。 不论我们要描述的是一个大国家还是一 个小房间，我们都要先设计好描述的顺序。要做到这一点，就要先搞清楚所要描 述的地方有哪些细节， 他们之间的方位关系如何，从哪个角度开始展开描述比较 清楚等。对一个地方的描述最忌凌乱无章，使读者摸不着头脑。如上面的文章也 可用空间法来展开。 Topic: A Typical Freshman’s Activities on a Typical Day（大学新生一天 的活动） A. Activities in the students’ dormitory 1.Getting up 2.Washing and dressing 3.Tidying up bedroom 4.Collecting books and notes 5.Undressing and washing 6.Going to bed B. Classroom, library and lab activities 1.English class 2.Studying in library 3.Law class C. Canteen and recreation activities251.Breakfast,Lunch and supper 2.Physical exercises 3.Snacking in coffee shop/ Relaxing with roommates and watching TV news reports 常用的衔接词和短语： be situated/located in/on/at, be surrounded by, next to, to the east/south/west/north of, close to, from?to?, above, over, under, below, between, across, opposite.第三节 按过程展开如果某个描述涉及到多个步骤，应该按照过程的发展顺序把这些步骤交代清楚， 在这一类文章里常常用祈使句和不定代词“你”来表达。如果文中的说明至今有 效，在行文中用现在时。 It is necessary for a person to know how to post a parcel, since almost everyone has relatives and friends living far away and he may like to send them something. Different objects are packed in different ways. Things like bottles of medicine and watches should be put into wooden boxes to avoid breakage. After you have packed the objects, put down your address and that of the addressee on the wrapping. Give the parcel to the postal clerk for him to check. He will then give you a form to fill in. Having filled in the form, you give it together with the parcel to the clerk. He will weigh the parcel and tell you how much you should pay. You pay the money and get a receipt. Be sure to keep your receipt until you are sure that the addressee has received the parcel. If anything wrong should happen to your parcel, you can show the receipt to the clerk and ask to be reimbursed. 描述过程的常用衔接词和短语： 1) Firstly… secondly… Thirdly… Finally… 2)First, Then, Next, After this, Lastly 3)Afterward, Furthermore, Moreover, in addition to….第四节 举例和归纳通过举例来展开段落，可以使中心句的抽象意思具体化，给读者留下一个清晰、 有趣、深刻和信服的印象。例子可以只举一个，也可举几个。 举例的最明显 标志是 for example/for instance 的使用。就整篇文章而言，可以不是举例型 文章，但其中的某一段落可以采用举例的结构模式。如： Topic：Harmfulness of Fake Commodities 提纲： 1. 目前社会上有不少假冒伪劣商品，为什么会有这种现象？ 2．举例说明假冒伪劣商品对消费者个人、社会等的危害。 Nowadays in the society, there are enormous fake commodities. When you go to the supermarket, you may buy some fake food commodities. When you go the26parmacist's, you may buy some fake medicine. The deep root of this phenomenon lies in some one's greed for money. In order to get a large amount of money in a short time, they try every means to produce fake commodities, without any regard for other people's benefit and health. Fake commodities can do great harm to both consumers and society. For example, when a person bought fake medicine, it was useless in curing his disease and really a waster of money. Sometimes fake medicine can even cause death. Fake commodities are usually sold at a low price. It causes unfair competition in the market economy and puts the whole society in disorder. 另一种通过举例或细节展开段落的方法是从细节到归纳，即先铺叙细节，把归纳 性的中心句放在段尾。如： Whether you do or do not open a gift in the p whether you should or should not turn the plate over to look at the maker? whether you put your coat on before or after you leave the host? whether you eat as quietly or as whether you carry on a conver whether you walk in front of or be whether it is a friendly or an offensive gesture to put your hand on the arm of the person with whom you are talking---these and a thousand other questions are matters of cultural definition. None of them is inherently right or wrong, and none is good or bad manners except as society defines it so. 段落中的细节和例子往往按照它们的重要性和趣味性来排列： 分量轻或趣味性弱 的靠前，分量重或趣味性强的置后。 举例法常用的衔接词： 1） 介词短语：for example, for instance, in illustration of, by way of examples 2） 形容词短语: such as, such…as… 3） 副词: as 4） 动词短语: be an example of, be a case in point, take an example, provide an example, use an example, bring forward a case, draw an example第五节类比（comparison）和对比（contrast）类比和对比是写作中常用的方法。我们通常对比生活的过去和现在,对比中西方 文化，广告的好处与弊端，等等。通过类比和对比，我们往往可以对事物有一个 更加明了的认识。 严格地说， 类比用于指出同一范畴的事物之间或者几个人之间的相似之处，而对 比则用于指出他们之间的不同之处。但实际上，类比和对比常常同时使用，原因 是人们在议论两个人或事物时，往往既提出二者的相同之处，又注意到他（它） 们之间的差异所在。 可通过两种不同的做法，用类比和对比的方法展开段落。第一种称为整体类比 （ subject-by-subject comparison ） 或 整 体 对 比 法 （ subject-by-subject contrast） ，即在阐述完一件事物的特点之后，再摆出与之相比的另一件事物的 全部特点。需要注意的是，进行类比或对比的两件事物的方面应一致，顺序应相27同，否则就会相互脱离不成对比。第二种作法称为交替类比（ point-by-point comparison）或交替对比（point-by-point contrast） ，即逐条比较或对比两个 人或两种事物的特点。请看下面的例子： 当我们比较上中学和上大学有何不同时，我们可以采用交替类比 （point-by-point comparison）或交替对比（point-by-point contrast）法。 There are many differences between middle school and the college. First, in middle school, we have to listen to what the teacher says in class, to understand the content of the text. But in college, we must study by ourselves before class. If not, we couldn't follow the teacher. Second, there are lots of rules in middle school. For example, we should wear the uniform, the girls must have their hair cut short, and we are not allowed to make boy- or girlfriends. However, in college, we have more freedom. We can wear the clothes we like. And the girls could have long beautiful hair. We are also free to make boy or girlfriends. The third, in the middle school, we must study first. That means we could do nothing but study. In contrast, we have to do everything by ourselves in college. That means we must plan our time carefully. There are also other differences between our school life and our college life. We have to learn to adapt ourselves to college life.? 再如当我们相比较体育运动所带来好处和副 作用时，我们可采取整体类比 （ subject-by-subject comparison ） 或 整 体 对 比 法 （ subject-by-subject contrast） ，题目：&Positive and Negative Aspects of Sports&提纲： a. 体育运动的好处 b. 体育运动可能带来的副作用 c. 我参加体育活动的体会 Sports do us good in many respects . It goes without saying that taking exercises can build up our physical strength. In collective sports like basketball, volleyball, or football, we will learn the importance of cooperation. While taking part in sports game, we will try our best to win and arouse ourselves the competitive spirit. Sports can also help us relax after a period of exhausting work. However, as the saying goes, &there are two sides to everything&, and sports is without exception. We may hurt other players or ourselves if we are not careful enough when participating in sports activities. What's more, excessive or severe training can do harm to our health. My participation in sports tells me that sports can make us healthy both physically and psychologically. It is also a good way for people to know each other and can promote friendship between people. So long as we are carefully enough, sports can do us nothing but good. 通过以上两个例子，我们可以看出，交替类比（point-by-point comparison） 或交替对比（point-by-point contrast）法的格式是：A 1 ---- B1；A2 --- B2 ； A3 --- B3 整 体 类 比 （ subject-by-subject comparison ） 或 整 体 对 比 法 （subject-by-subject contrast）格式是： A 1，2，3 ---- B1，2， 3。 交替类比（对比）法用于集中讨论两种事物的几个特点，先指出一种事物的一个 特点， 接着同另一种事物的相应的特点进行比较。这一方法适用于讨论内涵比较28简单， 特点比较突出的事物。 当我们想深入地讨论两种事物的相似的特点而这些 相似特点的内涵较复杂， 需要详细解释时，可以先详尽阐述一事或一人的各种特 点然后再同相比者进行全面的比较。第六节 分类展开分类就是根据事物的特点分别归类。我们对各种人或事物进行分类，如树木，河 流，城市，公司，大学生等等。比如我们给河流的分类可以按他们的宽度、长度 和深度的相近和差别分类， 比如我们给河流的分类可按它们的大小、 产地、 颜色、 价格或质量分门别类。 使用分类方法展开段落的关键在于把握好类别的对应性，例如，我们可把各种体 育活动分成田径、游泳、球类、体操等几大类，但是如果把它们分成跳高、球类、 跑步、体操和自由泳等几类，我们就破坏了事物类别的平行性。因为，在这个例 子里，球类和体操本身是两大类别，而跳高、跑步、自由泳是别的大类别里的具 体项目，彼此不能混为一谈。因此，在分类时，要注意事物类别对应，不能把不 同类别的事物交错在一起。 As far as political views are concerned, people fall into three categories. First are the conservative people. Conservatives are opposed to sudden or great changes. Second are the liberal people. These people are in favor of progress and reform. But their opinions often seem to idealistic. The third type is the moderate people. The moderates keep everything within reasonable litmus. They are more practical in this hard world. In my opinion, most people seem to belong to this group. 再如： 题目：Advantages of a Job Interview 提纲： 1． 现在找工作一般都要面试，通过面试，面试者和应试者可以相互了解情况。 2． 面试者可以想应试者介绍情况，如工作性质、条件、待遇等。 3． 应试者也机会给对方留下一个好的印象，如可以表现出自信心，可以介绍教 育背景、工作能力等。 Nowadays, when a person is hunting for a job, there will always be a job interview and I think the job interview has a lot of advantage. The interviewer and the interviewee can know about each other from it. First, the interviewer can tell something about the job to the interviewee such as the salary, the working conditions and something else that is relevant to the job. Then the interviewee can decide whether the job is really suitable for him. Second, I think the job interview is a good chance for the interviewee to show both his ability and confidence. Then the interviewer can figure out whether he is the right person for the job. In a word, I think the interview will do good to both the interviewer and the interviewee. By an interview the interviewer can find a suitable person if both of them make the best of the job interview. 表示分类的名词： 种：kind, sort, type 类：group, classification, category 组成成员：member29分部/分支：division/branch 纲：class 目:order 科:family 属:genus 种:species 表示分类的动词和动词短语： 将......按.......分类:class, classify, divide, categorize, group, place, arrange... 属于某一类:belong to, fall into, be classed with,... 包括若干类:there be, contain, consist of, comprise, include, be composed of, be comprised of 组成.......类:make up, constitute, compose,....第七节 按原因和结果展开我们在日常对话中,经常会听到别人问为什么,自己也经常问同样的问题,所以我 们对于因果推理并不陌生。 在因果推理中最为重要的是合理性和逻辑性，我们会 发现抽象的因果推理有时候远远不能回答别人或我们自己的问题。 实际上，任何一个因果推理都有可能是以下三个模版中的一种或多种。 模版 1： 一种原因导致一种结果 模版 2：一种原因导致多种结果 模版 3：多种原因导致一种结果 模版 1 是一种理想化的因果模版，原因和结果一一对应，在解决一些简单问题的 时候还是可能的， 但在日常生活中的因果对应往往很复杂，所以我们经常使用的 因果模版是 2 或模版 3。当然还有很多情况下，还会发生一种超出这三种模版的 情况，即所谓的因果链条。但至少在我们的写作中可以不考虑这种情况，毕竟我 们只是进行习作而已。 模版的确定和推理模式的确定有密切的联系。在因果法的应用中，我们或者把原 因放在前面，把结果放在后面，或者反之。模式的选择主要取决于我们要回答的 问题是 WHY 还是 HOW。如果是前者，结果一般放前面，原因放后面；如果是后者， 原因一般放在前面，结果放后面。在模版 2 和模版 3 的使用中，我们还必须注意 多个原因或多个结果的排列次序， 原则上我们应该把最重要的原因或结果放在最 后面。下面这篇文章采用的是模版 3 的模式。 There are three reasons why some students cannot finish their college studies. Some students fail in college because their academic background is weak. For example, one student might not have had an adequate mathematics course in high school, so he fails his university math class. Another student may not atte as a result, he may not be able to pass the tests in class since he does not know the answers. Next, because of financial problems, other students may fail university classes. For example, students who have to take jobs don't have a consequently, they may fail their classes. Others may give up their college study because they cannot stand the strain of working and studying at the same time. Finally, there are students who fail because their energies are not directed toward their classes. Some of these students are not interested in college, so they spend their days doing other things. Some other students, though enjoying college life, are distracted by other activities parties, movies, sports, etc. So they do not study enough, therefore, they fail. Because of all these problems, numerous students fail in college every year. 因果型段落只是将叙述重点集中在原因或结果之上， 文章所采用的扩展模式还是30列举，列举原因或结果。但在介绍原因时，可以使用举例的方式。应该说，以上 虽然列举了写作中常用的几种方法，但在实际写作中，尤其是在考试当中，它们 往往要结合起来用。如下面一篇文章就是学生在考试中的作文。 Directions: A. Title: Fast Food B. Word Limit: about 200 words C. Your composition should be based on the Outline given in Chinese blow: 1. 快餐在中国十分流行，它是现代快节奏社会的最佳反映。 2. a. 快餐受欢迎有两条原因： b. 然而，从营养角度来讲，快餐却差强人意。 3. 对快餐还}