个人工作计划范文_13组有趣的中文连词，英文这么翻译_沪江英语
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1）一会儿……，一会儿……
走一会儿，坐一会儿，他始终懒得张罗买卖。
Walking and resting by turns, he wandered about until noon without the energy to solicit fares.
2）一边……，一边……
朱吟秋第一个先跳起来，一边走，一边喊。
Chu Yin-chiu jumped up and led the way out, shouting as he ran.
王三毛一边回答，一边只顿走。
Wang replied without slackening his pace.
洋教师一边笑，一边继续往下念。
The foreign teacher went on, his reading punctuated by fits of laughter.
3）一面……，一面……
他一面按铃，一面想，该死！该死。
As he pressed the bell, he thought, Hell!
4）一来……，二来……
鸿渐说，就在此地结了婚罢，一来省事，二来旅行方便些。
He suggested they get married there at the school. It would save money and effort for one thing and make their travelling arrangements easier for another.
5）一方面……，（另，又）一方面……
我们现在一方面是知识分予太少，另一方面有些地方中青年知识分子很难起作用。
While there is an overall shortage of intellectuals, in some places young and middle-aged intellectuals are finding it difficult to play a useful role.
6）宁可（宁肯，宁愿）……，也不（决不，不）……
我所以宁可逃出来做难民，不肯回乡，也不过为了达一点点气节。
I became a refugee rather than return to our village precisely because I had a little moral integrity left.
7）与其……，不如（还不如，倒不如）……
(鸿渐）与其热枕头上翻来覆去，还是甲板上坐坐罢。
Rather than toss and turn on his warm pillow, Hung-chien would just as soon sit for a while longer on the deck.
8）……，再说……（口语）
再说，这个事要是吵开，被刘四知道了呢。
What's more, what if word of this spread and reached Fourth Master Liu’s ears?
9）……，何况（更不必说，更不用说）……
海水越来越深，连最会游泳的都失去了控制的能力，何况我是个初下水的人。
In an increasingly rough sea, even a good swimmer may lose all control over himself，let alone me，an absolute beginner in the art of swimming.
10）别说（不要说，甭说，不要说)……，就是（即使）……
谢大媒人都没有钱，更別说结婚了。
"We don’t even have enough money to reward the matchmaker，let alone get married."
11）任凭……， 也……（书面语）
任凭他去拉车，他去要饭，也得永远跟着他。
Let him pull a rickshaw or become a beggar, she would stay with him forever
12）再……，也……
照这样下去，生意再好些也不中用。
The way things were, even if business should improve even more, it still wouldn't be any use.
13）……，省得（免得）……（口语）
况且这么一来，他就可以去向刘四爷把钱要回，省得老这么搁着，不像回事儿。
So in this way he could get the money from Fourth Master Liu. It was not a good idea to let him hang onto the money.
我们用木头把那座旧楼房撑住，以免倒搨。
We blocked up the old building for fear that it should collapse.
有一个有意思的现象，我们英语学到后来，发现最难用英语去瞬间表达的中文并非大词难词，那是那些在中文里看似常用的“小词”。而连词就是这类“小词”中非常难搞定的一类。您的位置：
汉英翻译教案
Spring 2017 Chinese - English Translation Course Description
Instructor ( professor)： Li Yan
Introductory Remarks about the Course
Ⅰ. Themain objectives ofthecourse
This course is to teach students basic theories, specific principles andconcrete techniques and skills,and to train students mainly to the ability of putting Chinese into Englishthrough practice. Emphasis will be on practice. So students should learn basic theories, specific principles andconcrete techniques and skills.
Ⅱ.Required textbooks and reference books:
1. Cheng Hongwei, Li Yadan A New Coursebook on Chinese - English Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2011
2.Zhuhui, A Course book in Chinese - EnglishTranslation. Chongqin: Chongqin University Press, 2004
3.Cheng Zhaowei etal. A Concise Course book On Translation. NationalDefense Industry Press,2006
4.LuRuichang, etal. Textbook for Translating Chinese into English. Xi’an :Shaan’xi People’s press, 2001.
Ш.Requirements
&Students are expected to attend all classsessions. &
&If you are absent, a note (a writtenexplanation) must be presented to explain the reason for the absence. When youmiss classes, remember it is your responsibility to find out what you missed.
&If you are absent three times, please come tosee me immediately.
&Assignments are due on the day announced inclass. &All assignments must be submitted ON TIME. &Late assignmentswill notbe accepted. So prepare your assignments in advance.
&All class assignments will be written on the paperarranged by our department.
IV. Grading
You will be evaluated on your attendance, participation in class,class assignments, and translation ability. &
& & & &Attendance,participation, class assignments, translation & & & …30% &
& &Mid-term exam &20%
& &Final Exam…50%
The passing grade for this course is 70. &That means those whoscore below 70 fail. &Grades are not negotiable under any circumstances!
Good English ability is an advantage in this course, but fulfillingthe requirements is the only way to achieve a high final grade.
If you have problems with any aspect of this course, please do nothesitate to see me as soon as possible.
V.Tentativesyllabus:
Chapter 1 AnIntroduction to Chinese-English Translation
Chapter 2Culture, Language and Translation
& (1) A Contrastive Study of Differences in Thought Patterns Between English andChinese
& (2) A Contrastive Study between English and Chinese
Chapter 4 AContrastive Study between English and Chinese
Chapter 5Lexical Translation
Chapter 6 Chinglish(or False Friend) in Chinese-English Translation
Chapter 7 Waysto Translate Idioms
Chapter 8Sentence Translation
Chapter 9Paragraph Translation
Chapter 10Non-Literary Translation
Chapter 11Literary Translation
延安大学外国语学院教师教案（首页）
Chapter 1 An Introduction toChinese-English Translation
Ⅰ. Translation in China
1. Threepeaks of translation in history
1.1 TheTranslation of Buddhist ['budist ]佛教的Classics: TheFirst Peak
& Buddhism 佛教originated in India and began to penetrate to China toward themiddle of the first century, leaving a permanent influence on China’s religion,philosophy and social life. Several important figures are worth mentioninghere: &
1.1.1 Zhi Qian (支谦) (Zhi Qian made great contribution to translation theory)（佛经翻译的第一阶段、草创时期）
It is generally acknowledged that Zhi Qian in the Three Kingdomsperiods wrote the first essay on translation norms. In over thirty years(222-254) he translated about thirty volumes of Buddhist scriptures 圣经in a literal manner.In the essay “Preface to Fa Ju Jing” (《法句经》序)，he put forward his norms thatthe translator of Buddhist classics should “follow the original intention ofthe author without any embroidery（粉飾）”（因循本旨，不加文饰）. And it might be in his period of time that there appeared adiscussion on literal translation and free translation, a core issue in thedevelopment of translation theory.
1.1.2 Dao An (道安)（佛经翻译的第二阶段、发展时期）
In the fifth century (the Easter Jin Dynasty), the earliest statetranslation school yichang (译场) was founded and the translation of Buddhist classics was carriedout on a large scale. Dao An (314-385) was appointed its director主管, who advocatedstrict literal translation and made translation a profession. He suggested thata translator should “translate according to the original without any additionand deduction” (案本而传，不令有损言游字). Around 374, Dao An compiled A Comprehensive Catalogue of theSutras['su:tr?]经典(《综理众经目录》 )， abibliography of all translations done before, the first of its kind in thehistory of Chinese Buddhism.
1.1.3Kumarajiva (鸠摩罗什)
India by birth, the famous monk Kumarajiva (350-409) was invited toChang’an in 401, a center bustling(热闹繁忙)with Buddhist activities. His task was toretranslate the most influential scriptures and produce definitive editionswith authoritative interpretations. It is he who firstly suggested thattranslators should sign their names in translated works. Kumarajiva’s translations,generally speaking, were more faithful to the original due to his years ofassiduous [?'sidju?s]勤勉的,刻苦的effort and study.
1.1.4 XuanZang (玄奘)（佛经翻译的第三阶段、全盛时期）
（Journey to the West《西游记》; A Dream of the Red Mansions《红楼梦》;Three Kingdoms《三国演义》;Outlaws of the Marsh《水浒》; Outlaw犯法后躲藏起来的人，Marsh沼泽、湿地）
In the Tang Dynasty, Xuan Zang (600-664), the most eminent figure ofthe first peak in translation history, arrived in India after countless trialsand brought back to the capital Chang’an 657 collections of sutras['su:tr?]佛经,经典in the original. Inthe 19 years preceding his death, he translated 75 collections (1,335volumes)of them, which is more than half the total translations of Buddihist scripturesdone in the dynasty. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed hisepoch-making['i:p?k'meiki?]划时代的criteria that translation “must be faithful and intelligible易理解的to the populace [ 'p?pjul?s ]平民,大眾 ” (既须求真，又须喻俗).
1.2 Thetranslation of books on science and technology: The second peak（科技翻译：中国的士大夫和传教士联手将欧洲的宗教、哲学、科技和文学等“西学”介绍到中国来。）
The second peak, lasting for a span of 200 years, began in the lateMing and early Qing Dynasties around the 17th century. With thearrival of Jesuit [ 'd?ezjuit ] missionaries from Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Switzerland,Germany, Belgium and Poland, China came into contact ['k?nt&kt] with the Western world gradually. Many missionaries had their worksor translations published in China, and many concerned science and technologyranging from astronomy[?'str?n?mi]天文学, mathematics, physics and metallurgy [ me't&l?d?i ]冶金學to anatomy [ ?'n&t?mi ]剖析,解剖學,骨骸, biology生物学and cartography[kɑ:'t?gr?fi]地图制作,制图法,制图. Two important figures are worth mentioning here:
1.2.1 XuGuangqi(徐光启x& guāng qǐ)
Xu Guangqi(), a distinguished scientist and a seniorofficial of the late Ming Dynasty, played a remarkable role in introducing Westernscience into China when it was labeled as an unorthodox term by mosttraditional scholars. During his charge of the Hanlin Academy(翰林院) in Beijing, the topacademic institution in China, Xu cooperated with the Italian Jesuit ['d?ezjuit]耶稣会信徒Matteo Ricci(利玛窦) in translating the 13 volumes of Euclid’s ['ju:klid]Elements of Geometry[d?i'?mitri] (《几何原本》)，though only 6 volumes(the partof plane geometry) were actually translated. Many of the terms in thetranslation are still in use today, such as point, line, straight line, curve曲线, parallel lines,angle, right angle, acute angle锐角, obtuse [?b'tju:s]angle钝角, triangle, quadrilateral[.kw?dri'l&t?r?l]四边形, etc.
1.2.2 LiZhizao(李之藻zǎo)
Living in thesame period as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao() was also an eminent scientistas well as famous translator. Under the guidance of Matteo Ricci, Li acquiredplenty of Western knowledge and later became a Catholic['k&θ?lik]天主教徒. In 1613 Li Zhizao and Matteo Riccitranslated Tong Wen Suan Zhi (《同文算指》)，whichillustrated how to perform written arithmetic operations书面算术运算, for example, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,extraction of a root, etc.
1.3TheTranslation of Western Classics: The Third Peak（鸦片战争后至“五四”前的西方政治思想和文学翻译）
The Opium ['?upj?m] War () and the singing of the first unequal Treaty ofNanjing ushered['???]引导,展示 in the third peak oftranslation activity in China’s history, lasting from the mid 19thcentury to the eve前夕of the may 4th Movement, with emphasis on Western worksof social sciences, military sciences and literature. Some representativefigures include:
1.3.1 LinZexu (林则徐)
Respectfully regarded as a national hero against British opium tradeand “the first Chinese who opened his eyes to look at the outside world”, LinZexu (), a government official, was also an eminent organizer oftranslation activity during this period. He established a translation centre inGuangzhou to render some foreign works on history and geography into Chinese aswell as gather information from the Western press.
1.3.2 LiShanlan（李善兰）
1.3.3 Lin Shu（林纾shū）(陈宏薇P.8)
Lin Shu (), a traditional Chinese scholor,has been regarded as the pioneer of literary translation in China due to hislarge quantity of translations of Western novels. Interestingly, Lin Shu neverdid hid job independently, instead, he translated with the assistance ofinterpreters because he himself did not know any foreign languages. He penned elegantclassical Chinese versions of a wide range of foreign works such as UncleTom’s Cabin (《黑奴吁录》《汤姆叔叔的小屋》)；DavidCopperfield (《块肉余生述》《大卫.科波菲尔》);OliverTwist（《贼史》《雾都孤儿》)
1.3.4 Yan Fu（严复）
Living in the late Qing society constantly threatened by colonialexpansion and profoundly shocked by the humiliating Treaty of Shimonoseki (《马关条约》) of April 1895 withJapan, Yan Fu (), became an active reformist and devoted to weavingvia ['vai?, 'vi:?]经由his translation Western studies in the broad space of the Chinese language.The 1898 translation of Thomas Henry Huxley’s Evolution and Ethics (《天演论》) established his reputationthroughout the country, in which he rendered “natural selection and survival ofthe fittest” into 物竟天择，适者生存，a widely quoted saying coming down to this day. In the preface tothe translated Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu set down the triple三个一组translationcriteria, namely, “faithfulness(信), expressiveness(达) and elegance(雅)”，withwhich he opened a new chapter in the translation history of China.
Yan Fu：Evolution and Ethics and other essays byT.H. Huxley(《天演论》)；An Inquiry Into the Nature and Cause ofthe Wealth of Nations by A. Smith(《原富》).
2.2Translation in Contemporary China
Translation activity has taken on a new look ever since the May 4thMovement, the starting point of the new democratic revolution in China. For thesake of a concise discussion, we may divide the contemporary era into twoperiods.
2.2.1Translation in China between
Literary Translation was equally noteworthy during this period,which made a significant contribution to the introduction of foreign literatureand the development of Chinese literature. Classical Chinese in translation wasgradually replaced by a more simplified and easily-understood vernacular [v?'n&kjul?]本地话,方言Chinese baihua,(白话)， Hence a linguistic progress.In terms of the quality and quantity of literary translation, both improvedgreatly due to the unremitting efforts of many eminent translators including LuXun, Qu Qiubai, Maodun and Lin Yutang, who not only devoted to translationpractice but also advanced their own theory about such heated topics astranslation criteria, literal or free translation, etc.
2.2.2Translation in Present-day China
Translation in China has stepped into a new era since the foundingof the People’s Republic of China in 1949. National and regional organizationsfor translators were established and a large quantity of scientific andtechnical works was translated into Chinese to meet the demands of nationalsocial and economic construction. Meanwhile, the quality and quantity oftranslations from Chinese into foreign languages acquired encouragingachievements.
With the conclusion of the so-called “Great Cultural Revolution” andChina’s adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up, there were renewed更新 efforts in the fieldof translation studies and practice. Never before has so much been translatedby and for so many, be it of a literary, cultural, scientific, economic ortechnological nature.
In the last few decades, a number of scholars in China introducedvarious translation principles in view of new discoveries in such branches assemiotics, social-linguistics, intercultural communication, etc. Accordingly,translation theories have witnessed dramatic changes in many areas like notionsof equivalence, faithfulness, contexts, cultural interaction and conflicts.
Looking back on the history of translation in China, we find that,on one hand, the long history of translation is w on theother hand, it is hard to find a systematic translation theory to guidetranslation practice although there do exist some prescriptive explanations onhow to translate. By comparing the situation with Western studies in thisfield, we have to admit that China still has a long way to go in itsdevelopment of translation theory and practice. With its booming兴旺的,繁荣的economy and theexpansion of its political influence in the international community, China nowis facing a new challenge in translation studies.
II. Thenature and classification of translation (see students’ book)
III. Theunits of translation (see students’ book)
IV. Thestandard of translation (see students’ book)
1. One is set upby Yan Fu (严复) on the basis of “faithfulness ,expressiveness and elegance” (faithfulness: to be faithful to the co expressiveness: to be as expres elegance:to be elegant if a translator uses words or sentence patterns before HanDynasty .)(信、达、雅). &(信：意义不倍(背)本文，忠实于原文；达：尽译文语言所能事以求原义明显，不拘泥于原文形式，信、达二者统一；雅：脱离原文而片面追求译文本身的古雅。他认为只有译文本身采用“汉以前字法句法”——实际上即所谓上等的文言文，才算登大雅之堂。) (加上课本p.8中间的内容评论)
2. The other is put forward by Lu Xun (鲁迅) on the basis of “rather being faithful in thoughtthan smooth in language”(宁信而不顺).
3. The new China witnesses two importantscholars on translation. One is Fu Lei and the other is Qian Zhongshu. Theformer suggests “achieve the ‘spirit’ of the original orexpression resemblance”（神似）. (译文同原文如果能在形式上和精神上同时一致起来，或称能达到“形似”和“神似”，这是翻译的高标准。)Mr. Qian Zhongshu puts forward the ideasof &“transfiguration or conversion” which aimed at “perfection”(化境).（所谓“化境”‘就是原作向译文的“投胎转世”，文字形式虽然换了，而原文投胎的思想、感情、风格、神韵都原原本本的化到了译文的境界里了，丝毫不留下翻译的痕迹，让读者读译作就完全像在读原作一样。化境是比传神更高的翻译标准。） They two follow the principle offaithfulness.
4. &In the Eastern Jin Dynasty, thereappeared another translator, the monk Dao An (释道安).He suggested “preaching according to the original without any deduction oraddition” (案本而传，不令有损言游字: 按照原文的本意).
In the history of western translationtheories, there appeared a lot of translation theorists. Here we only mentionsome representative opinions on translation criteria. Alexander Fraster Tytlerproposed the famous three principles in his essay on the principles oftranslation, in which he thought that “the translation should give acomplete transcript of the ideas
the style and the mannerof writing should be of the same character with
thetranslation should have all the ease of original composition” (一、译作应完全复写出原文的思想；二、译作的风格和手法应和原作属于同一性质；三、译作应具备原创作品的通顺).Exactly the three principles are allbased on faithfulness.
What’s the common point of thesetranslation criteria?
Despite the variety of opinions, twocriteria (pl.) are almost unanimously accepted, namely, the criterion offaithfulness/accuracy (忠实/准确) and that of smoothness (流畅/通顺). We may also take these criteria as theprinciples of translation in general. By faithfulness/ accuracy, we mean to befaithful not only to the original contents, to the original meaning and views,but also to the original form and style. Examples in the text book P10-13 arearranged to illustrate and explain that. By smoothness, we mean not only easyand readable rendering, but also idiomatic（地道的） expressionin the target language, free from stiff formula and mechanical copying fromdictionaries. Examples in the text book P10-13 are arranged to illustrate andexplain that.
V. Thequalifications of a good translator (see students’ book)
Exercises: 1.Text book P.19 & & & &
2.中国翻译史可大致分为那几个阶段？
3.你印象最深的翻译家是谁？他对翻译事业最突出的贡献是什么？
4.Translate the following passage into English: “友好与和平”，陈宏薇，《新实用汉英翻译教程》，上海外语教育出版社，2001.5
友好与和平
中国之所以坚持独立自主的和平外交立场，是因为在历史上她饱受帝国主义侵略战争带来的的苦难，更珍惜今天来之不易的和平生活，更同情与支持各国人民共同努力维护世界和平。中国是个发展中国家，正致力于通过改革开放，加快社会主义现代化建设，努力提高人民生活水平。为了实现既定的经济社会规划与目标，中国不仅需要国内的安定，也需要有一个和平的国际环境，特别是和平的周边环境。可以说这种愿望与世界各国人民的和平愿望是一致的。人们都知道，当今世界面临和平与发展两大课题，各国人民都需要一个安宁平静的和平环境，以发展经济，改善生活。只有如此才能和平保障发展，发展促进和平。&
Peaceand Friendship
& &China insists on a peaceful, independent foreign policy, because she suffered agreat deal from imperialist invasion for almost a century, and thus shecherishes her hard – earned peaceful life all the more and would give moresympathy and support to the concerted efforts of all the people to maintainworld peace.Being a developing country, China is trying in every way possibleto speed up its socialist construction and raise the people’s living standardsby means of reform and the open policy.To achieve the goal set for her economicand social development, China needs not only national stability but also apeaceful international environment, especially peaceful surroundings. This isalso the hope of all the people in the world.Peace and development are the twomajor tasks facing the world today. All the world peoples hope for a peacefulinternational situation so that they can develop their economies and improveliving conditions. Peace is the guarantee for development and development inturn promotes peace.
延安大学外国语学院教师教案（首页）
Chapter 2Culture, Language and Translation(有参考资料)
There exists an intimate relationship between culture, language andtranslation. How to treat their relationship properly is of great importance totranslators.
I. TheImplication（含义） of Culture（see student’s book P.20-24）
II. TheClassification of Culture（see student’s book P.20-24）
III. TheRelationship between Culture, Language and Translation
In fact, language plays a vital role in culture. Without language,culture would not be possible. Nida has pointed out,
… Culture is certainly a significant part of our lives. Language isnot only a distinctive feature of culture, it also distinguishes humans fromanimals and it is an absolutely indispensable means of transmitting culturefrom one generation to the next.
On the other hand, as a peculiar tool for human communication, everylanguage is a part of culture. (See students’ book P.22)
The relationship between language and culture is dialectical辩证的. The role of language withinculture and the influence of the culture on the meanings of words and idiomsare so pervasive[p?:'veisiv]普遍的that scarcely any text can be adequately understood without acareful study of its culture background. Juri Lotman, the former Sovietsemiotician, declares firmly that
… no language can exist unless it is steeped in t and no culture can exist which does not have at its center, thestructure of natural languages.
In this sense, learning a language is learning the culture of thecountry where the language is spoken.
The intimate relationship between languageand culture leads naturally to that between culture and translation.Translation is representation in one language of what is written or said inanother language. It’s a bilingual art because two different languages are involvedin this activity. As is stressed above, language and culture are closelyconnected and understanding one requires understanding the other, translatingas to be regarded as an intercultural activity as well. After all, thetranslator must analyze the SL within certain cultural contexts carefully so asto use appropriate words in appropriate order to represent in the targetculture the object or process the original writer describes.
Indeed, translation is a very importantmedium for culture exchange between people using different languages.Translation, a bilingual art, seemingly a mere interlingual transformation, isin nature an intercultural activity in its works of comparing, introducing andabsorbing.
Assignment: Write a passage on the topic “TheRelationship among Language, Culture and Translation” on about 300 words.
延安大学外国语学院教师教案（首页）
Chapter 3 AContrastive Study of Differences in Thought Patterns Between English andChinese
From the angle of translatology[.tr&nsl?'t?l?d?i]翻译学, translation includes thought level, semantic level and aestheticlevel. But thought level is the basis and precondition upon which the otherlevels are built. So in this chapter we shall trace back cultural backgroundscontributing to differences in thought patterns between English and Chinese.
I. Syntheticthought VS. Analytic [.&n?'litik] Thought
Synthetic thought inclines to（傾向于）combine separate parts of anobject or idea into a unity, and integrate [ 'intigreit ]整合,使...成整体 its qualities, relations and the like. While analytic thoughtinclines to disintegrate a unity into small parts or separate its qualities,relations and the like.
Both synthetic thought and analytic thought are basic forms of humanthought. They are associated with each other. There is no nation in the worldthat only has synthetic thought or analytic one. It is due to the influence oftraditional culture that Chinese people are well developed in synthesis andEnglish-speaking people are well developed in analysis. (See student’s bookP.27)
1. Intuition & Chineserecognize the world from the point of view of entirety instead of practicalanalysis. They tend to perceive it from intuition ?直觉. Among traditional ancient Chinese religions, Confucianism, Taoismand Chinese Buddhism, regardless of their dissimilation（异化）, all suggests understandingthe objects by insightful有深刻见解的, &富有洞察力的intuition.Chinese signify（表示） an emphasis on direct experiences, and tend to stick to empiricism經驗主義in theory. Therefore they achieve intuitive comprehension andinsight, which is very difficult to explain in words, only to be sensed by themind and does not allow people to understand an object very clearly. Forexample in Chinese traditional religions, concepts like “天” “道” “气” “理” are quite ambiguous andunclear.
2. Evidence (See student’s book P.29)
Image thought is a psychological processin which human beings analyze, synthesize ([ 'sinθisaiz] v. 合成) andremake memory presentations in brain so as to form new ones. It is a specialform of thought, namely, imagination. For example once we think of anacquaintance, his or her look would appear at once at our brains. AbstractThought also called logical thought, is a mental process in which conceptis used for judging and inferring.
象形文字的使用人雨
and clothes than could be consumed and more money than could be spent. & & & & & &
花园里面是人间乐园，有的是吃不完的大米白面，穿不完的绫罗绸缎和花不完的金银财宝。
） kept all the visitors away from the exhibition hall.
他的冷漠态度把所有参观者当在展览馆门外。
In English abstract nouns are used while in Chinese concrete nounsare used because of different thought patterns. (Seestudent’s book P.30)
IV. EthicsVS. Cognition (See student’s book P.25)
TranslationExercises
乞丐和富人
我把钱放在一个乞丐的钵子里的时候，有个好心人走过来对我说：“台北有百分之九十九的乞丐都是假的，你当心他拿你的钱去花天酒地。”&
我说：“只要做了乞丐就没有假的，因为他伸手要钱的时候，心情就是乞丐了。心情是乞丐的人，即使他四肢完好，孔武有力，家财万贯，也仍然是个乞丐，更值得同情值得施舍。”同样的，一个穷人只要有富有的心情，他就是一个富人了。&
Beggars and the rich
A man seeing me put money into the bowl ofa beggar, came up and warned me with the best of intentions: “Beware of beggarsin Taipei. Ninety-nine percent of them are cheats. They will spend your moneyon alcohol and fancy women.”
“Beggars can’t be cheats,” I answered. “Assoon as a man holds out his hand for money, he has spiritually identifiedhimself with a beggar. An able-bodied or even a wealthy man who voluntarilyidentifies himself with the beggar is actually a beggar and thus all the moredeserves pity and charity.”
Conversely, a poor man who has a resourceful mind isactually a rich man.
延安大学外国语学院教师教案（首页）
Chapter 4 A Contrastive Study BetweenChinese and English
English and Chinese belong to different language families. Englishbelongs to Indo-European language family and Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetanlanguage family. Consequently the two languages are quite different. We shouldstudy the similarities and differences of the two languages to improve thepractical translation ability.
I. A contrastivestudy of scripts between English and Chinese (See students’ book P.33)
Introduction to the Chinese Script
The Chinese script is one of the oldest andmost widely used writing systems in the world. It has a history of about sixthousand years, and is used by about one fourth of the total population onearth. (从历史的角度观察汉语和英语，我们首先注意到，这两种语言分属于不同语系，即汉语属于汉藏语系，而英语属于印欧语系。汉藏语系是人类语言中形成最早、流通最广、使用人数很多的一种，汉语则是其中最具代表性的一种语言。印欧语系是世界上使用最广的语系，大约世界人口的一半以上都以该语系作为母语,英语是世界上使用最广泛的语言之一。
汉语已有6000多年的历史，甲骨文被认为是汉语的起源。汉语是一种表意文字，如“人”、“日”、“家”、“中”等。早在公元前206年，中国的语言学家就编撰了世界上第一部解释词义的专著《尔雅》。公元100年，又一部汉语语言工具书《说文解字》出版。这表明中国的学者很早就开始了对汉语进行研究。
英语的历史有1500多年。英语起源于五世纪中叶，经历了三个历史时期：即古英语时期，中古英语时期和现代英语时期。英语是拼音文字，其词汇之多居人类诸语言之首。英语已成为当今世界上使用最广泛的语言，广泛运用于政治、经济、科技和文化等许多领域。
The creation and evolution of Chinese characters areclosely interwoven with the development of Chinese culture. Chinese charactersare the basic carriers of the traditional Chinese culture, and, as an importanttool for extending, spreading and exchanging ideas, they have played a criticalrole in the long history of the Chinese nation. One may well argue that withoutChinese characters Chinese culture would not have achieved the splendors itdid.
The Chinese script is an ideographic writing system, inwhich the graphic图表的structure is directly related to the meaning.Hence the first step toward mastery of Chinese characters is to learn thecharacteristics of their composition成份.In the study of the composition of Chinesecharacters, there is a traditional theory known as four writings. That is,there are four types of characters in the terms of their composition: Pictographsor pictographic writing, indicatives, ideographs, phoneticcompounds, Strictly speaking, the four refer to the ways of composingChinese characters, Nevertheless the four writings’ theory is basically correctin revealing the general pattern in the creation and development of Chinesecharacters. It may help learners better understand the composition of Chinesecharacters and their original meanings, and hence use them more accurately.
1.Pictographspictographic writing &(日、月、山、水、人等)
A pictograph is a depiction of a material object.Chinese characters mostly originated from picture writing. In other words, mostChinese characters were originally pictures of objects. However, there is afundamental difference between pictographs and pictures: the former, usuallyrough sketches of objects(e. g. ら &sun& , る&moon& , ?&mountain& , 猠 &river& , ? &man& , ? &big& ) or consisting of a characteristic part only(e.g. ? &ox&, ο &sheep& ), are much simpler thanthe latter. More important is that pictographs are associated with definitemeanings and pronunciations, and have become symbolic, and as a result ofincreasing simplification and abstraction, pictographs of the later ages arequite deferent from their originals. Compared with those in the Oracle-BoneInscriptions, pictographs in the Regular Script are no longer picture like. Ina sense they are not really pictographic, but simply symbolic.
Pictographs are based on the external form of materialobjects, but the abstract concepts in language are formless, which renders itimpossible to depict them. This impossibility inevitably hinders the growth ofpictographs, and that is why their number is limited. However, pictographyremains the most important method of composing Chinese characters. The othersare only developments on this method and variations.
2. Indicatives or Indicative Character（一、二、三、上、下）
Indicatives refer to the way of forming abstractcharacters with indicating signs. There are two subtypes of indicatives: one iscomposed of a pictograph and an indicating sign, e.g. ?(knife-edge) , セ(root) , ソ(treetop) ; the other is composed purely of abstractsign, e.g. ?(on the top) , ?(underneath), ?(one), ?(two) and(three).
Indicatives account for the smallest percentage ofChinese characters. The reason is that for most characters there are simplerways of composition: characters referring to material objects may be composedpictographically and those expressing abstract concepts may be composedideographically or by way of phonic-compounding.
3. Ideographsor Associative Character (森、从)
Ideographs are compounds, composed of two or moreexisting characters. In terms of structure, an ideograph is a composition oftwo or more characters side by side or one on top of another. In terms ofmeaning, an ideograph is also a composition of the meanings of its componentcharacters. For example, the single character れ stands for a tree, two trees together 狶 refers to a group of trees-grove, and the character made up ofthree trees 此 means a place full of trees, a forest.And the character ヰ consists of ?(man) and れ(tree) , signifies that man istaking a rest against a tree.
4. Phonetic-semanticcompounds or morpheme-phonetic character
A phonetic compound consists of a semantic radical and aphonetic radical. The semantic radical indicates its semantic field and thephonetic radical its pronunciation. For example, phonetic-semantic compoundswith れ(tree) as theradical like 猀(pine), 琭(cypress),?(peach) ar those with も(hand) as the radical like 崩(push), ┰(pull),矗(lift), ? (press) all refer toactions performed by the hand. However the semantic radical only shows thegeneral semantic class of the character, not its specific meaning. The specificmeanings of the characters sharing the same radical-are differentiated by thephonetics they each have. The phonetics in some phonetic-semantic compounds mayalso be semantic, e. g. the phonetic ? in 谤 is also meaningful in the sense of &take&.
There are many objects and abstract, ideas which are difficultto express through-pictography or ideography. For example, 尘 the general term for birds, but thereare thousands of types of birds in the world, and it is impossible todifferentiate each of them by way of pictography or ideography. But this is easilyachieved in phonetic-semantic compounds by adding different phonetics to theradical 尘, e.g. 翭(pigeon), 舃(crane), 蔓 (chicken) and 肹(swan). Thus there is an enormous number of phonetic compounds inChinese, and this number is growing larger and larger in the modern period.Statistics show that phonetic-semantic compounds accounted for 80% of the totalcharacters in the Origin of Chinese Characters (Shui Wen Jie Zi) of the HanDynasty, 88% in Aspects of the Six Categories of Chinese Characters (Liu Shu Lue)of the Song Dynasty, and 90% in Kangxi Dictionary of the Qing Dynasty. In themodern simplified form currently in use, phonetic compounds make up an evenlarger percent.
II. A contrastivestudy of phonetics between English and Chinese (See students’ book P.34)
汉语是声调语言，而英语是语调语言。
汉语发音标准以普通话为准，其音素分为韵母（元音）和声母（辅音）两大类。
汉语是声调语言，每个汉字都有四个声调：（阴）（阳）（上）（去）
在英语的语言系统中，音节包括三个部分：音节首、音节核心和音节尾。英语中闭音节多，开音节少，音节中至少必须有一个元音，有多少个元音，就有多少个音节，英语中的音节总数大大超过汉语。
英语是语调语言而非声调语言。语调一般在句子的末尾，它可以表示句子的语法功能，能区分句子为陈述句、疑问句或反问疑问句：语调还具有强调功能，能突出说话者所特别想强调的部分。语调还有表态功能，能表示说话者的态度、语气和情感。
英汉这两种语言在语调方面有着一些相似之处，因为语调可以表示说话者的情感，而人类的情感在许多方面都是相同的。一般来说，在表示命令、陈述、肯定、感叹等情感时，汉语和英语都是用相类似的平调或降调：而在表示怀疑、疑问、嘲讽等情感时，多用升调。&
III.. A contrastivestudy of words between English and Chinese (See students’ book P.35)
A contrastive study of words between English and Chinese includestwo aspects:
on semantic of word
1. On wordconstruction
(1) 实词和虚词
汉语词语和英语词语都可以分为两大类，即实词和虚词。汉语的实词包括名词、形容词、动词、代词、数词、量词和副词。虚词包括连词、介词、感叹词和助词。汉语中的助词分为动词助词、情态动词等。汉语无冠词。英语的实词包括名词、动词、形容词、代词、数词和副词，但是英语没有量词。英语的虚词和汉语大致相同，但是英语的虚词还包括助动词和冠词。汉语的词语大多为双音节。
（2）从词的构成方面来看， A、英汉语都使用加缀法，汉语的主要方法是词根复合方式，但是汉语中的构词法仍然使用加缀法。&
英语的构词主要使用加缀法，英语中的词缀从所处的位置上来说，可分为前缀和后缀；从语法功能上说，还可以分为名词词缀、动词词缀、形容词词缀、副词词缀、反义词词缀等。&
汉语词缀可分为两大类，一类是汉语中本身就具有的，一类是受外语的影响，通过翻译而产生的词缀。&
汉语中本身具有的：表示“人”的前缀为：老（老头、老师、老板），阿（阿姨、阿妈、阿爸、阿毛），子（儿子、老子、妻子、嫂子），亲（父亲、母亲、双亲）等。&
受外语影响的：例如“……性”（必要性、思想性、民族性……），“……化”（全球化、现代化、工业化……），“……家”（画家、音乐家、思想家、哲学家、科学家……）。&
英语中的前后缀数量众多，单位表示“人”的就有好几种。表示职业的有：-er ,-or ,-ar ,-ist ,-eer ,-ian等，表示来自哪个国家的人有：-an ,-er ,-ese ,-ian等，表示具有某种职务的人有：-ain(captain),-ary (secretary),-al (principal)等,还有表示阴性、阳性的：-ess (hotess ,actress),-ine (heroine)等。&
B、汉英两种语言中常用的构词手段除了加缀外,还有重叠、缩略法等。例如，妈妈、爸爸、哥哥等这一类表示亲属的称谓；狗狗、毛毛、牛牛等儿童用语。在英语中也有类似的用法，例如：mum---mummy, dad---daddy, dog---doggy
C、汉英语言的构词还可通过缩略法达到。
四个现代化-四化
高等院校-高校
申办奥运会-申奥
科学研究-科研
The United States of America-USA
World Health Organization-WHO
North Atlantic Treaty Organization-NATO
D、汉语词语的形式变化少，词缀数量不多，意义不稳定，一缀多义的现象十分普遍。例如前缀“老”十分常用，它可以跟许多字搭配，但意义不尽相同。
英语词语的形式变化多，词缀丰富，而且构词能力强。英语词语的形态变化有内部形态变化、外部形态变化两大类。内部形态变化主要指通过添加前缀或后缀构成新的词语。英语的词缀有一定的规律，一般情况下，大多数前缀只能构词，即构成一个新的词,很少改变词性，只有少数前缀改变词性和词义，如body-embody。例如，表示否定的前缀un-,non-,im-,ir-，表示其他意义的前缀anti-,quasi-,semi-等。后缀不但能构成词，还能够改变词性。
英语词语的外部形态变化是指在句子中为了起到语法上的功能而加上一些特定的标记。例如，表示复数形式的-s,和-es，表示时态和语态的-ing和-ed。还如，is的复数和过去式分别是are和was。
2. On semantic of word
汉英词语语义的对比主要是从汉英两种语言中一些词语所包含的特定的语义来发展开，及一些词语的引申意义或比喻意义。主要从几个方面进行对比：颜色词的对比、动植物名称的对比、习语的对比等。
（1）Comparative study of color terms between Englishand Chinese
On some occasions, some things and phenomena can arouse differentmoods among the English and the Chinese. In other words, the English andChinese have different association towards some same thing and phenomena. Thatis, some associative meanings in English are different from their counterpartsin Chinese.
Take the color term “red” for example.
Both “red” and “红” mean “the color of blood or fire”. (This refers to denotativemeaning which is given in the dictionary) The associative or symbolicmeanings of “red” and “红” are quite different because of the different social customs andpolitical factors.
①The associative meanings of “red” in English: (A) “Red” isassociated with “danger” and “anger”. In every daylife, “waving a red flag” means “doing something that can cause quick anger inother people.” (B) “Red” is also associated with “blood” and “violent”. Hencethe famous British scholar, Hawkes translated Chinese 《红楼梦》as “the Story of the Stone”,not as“A Dream of the red Mansions” (the latter is Chinese scholar, Yang Xianyi’sversion); 怡红公子as“GreenBoy”; 怡红院as “thehouse of Green Delights” because he avoided using the word “red”.&
② Thedifferent associative meanings of “红” in Chinese: Red arouses the feelings of enthusiasm, excitement andaffection among the Chinese, so the Chinese like red very much. (A) “红” is associated with thesymbol of “celebration, happy event, wedding, good luck and success.” For instance, “开门红” refers to “begin well”. “满堂红” means” success or having a good luck”. (B) “红” is associated with“revolution” and “troops”. For example, “红旗”symbolizes “revolution andvictory”; “红军”, thered army refers to revolutionary troops.
在汉语和英语两种语言中，一些表示颜色的词语所包含的特殊意义既有相同之处，也有不同之处，甚至引申意义完全相反。如节假日被称为“red-letter day”。在汉语中红色还表示嫉妒或羡慕的意思，而英语中表示这种意思却用绿色green来表示，因为green就有嫉妒的含意。红色在中国还具有强烈的政治含意，象征着革命、无产阶级政权等，而红色在英语国家中所包含的政治含意却不鲜明。他们多用黑色来指某一组织，如“黑手党-----Black Hand”。汉语中的“黄色书”的含意与英语的黄色书“YellowPages”更是完全不同。
汉英语言中的颜色词的不同引申含意牵涉到的是汉英民族心理和文化的差异，在翻译中中要仔细斟酌。例如“红白喜事”不能简单按字面直译，因为在英语国家里婚礼上新娘要穿象征纯洁的白色婚纱，而葬礼上人们则要穿上黑色的礼服表示哀悼，因此，译为“weddings and funerals”这样才能使译文最大限度地忠实于原文。
（2）Comparative study of animal and plant termsbetween English and Chinese
Take the animal term“dragon” for example.
Both “dragon” and “龙” mean “an imaginary fire-breathing animal in myth”. But theirassociative meanings are opposite.
①The associative meanings of“dragon” in English: (A) “Dragon” connotes “terrible monster” or “giant thateats men” (B) “Dragon” is also associated with “a fierce old woman, especially onewho allows too little freedom to a young girl in her charge”. For example, “Hermother is a real dragon.”
②The opposite associativemeanings of “龙” inChinese: (A) “龙” isthe symbol of &the “Chinese people”. The Chinese people call themselvesthe descendants of dragon proudly such as “龙的传人”and “龙子龙孙”. (B) “龙” is associated with “emperor” and “nobility”. Emperors always namethemselves “真龙天子”.(C) “龙” isassociated with “good luck and success”. For example, “龙凤呈祥” means “good luck.”
Let us look at the plant term “Rose”.
Denotative meanings are identical but associative meanings arepartly similar.
In English and Chinese, there are quite a lot of words whoseassociative meanings are partly similar, though the denotative meanings ofthese words are the same. Here are some contrasts.
The denotative meanings of “Rose” vs “玫瑰”are identical. So let’s justfocus our attention on the partly similar associative meaningsand the partly different associative meanings ofthem.
①The partly similarassociative meanings of “rose” vs “玫瑰”are “sweet” “love” “romance” and “affection” which are based onbeauty and sweet-smelling of the flower. Example 1,“A Red, Red, Rose (Robert Burns) O my luve is like a red red rose…” This is avery moving love poem in which the author compares his idol to “A Red, Red,Rose” and sings the praises of his ideal lover. Example 2, “在我心中的深处，开着一朵玫瑰，我用生命的清泉，把它灌溉栽培。”It is a song in the Chinese film “Trace of Tears”. Here “玫瑰”is also compared to affection.The heroine wants to water the rose, her affection to her husband by using thespring of her life. Hence rose is also the symbol of love in Chinese.
②The partly different associativemeanings of “rose” vs “玫瑰”
(A)In English “rose is used to symbolizesomething “secret” or “silent”. Therefore the idiom “under the rose” means “keepsecret and never betray”.
(B)“A thorny rose ” is associated with “imperfectness” in English, while “带刺的玫瑰” is associated with “a girl who is difficult to please” in Chinese.For example, when English people say, “There is no rose without a thorn”, theymean, “Nothing is perfect.” In Chinese we often hear people say, “这个姑娘真漂亮，小心!这可是个带刺的玫瑰”. Here “带刺的玫瑰” means thatbeautiful young woman is not accessible and it is difficult to get heraffection.
汉英两种语言中的动植物名词大体相似，但是有些动植物名词早特定的文化语境下，却有着其特殊的引申含意。例如，“狗”在汉语中的地位比较低下，因此也常用来形容一些生活贫困，地位卑贱的人。在英语中狗虽然有时也成为人们贬低的对象，但更多的时候是人类的朋友，家庭中的一员，因为它忠诚、可靠，在希腊神话中它是来世的守门者（a guardian at the portals of the afterlife）
汉语中“龙”是一种神通广大，主宰天地的吉祥物。在英语中，虽然也有关于龙的神话，不过“龙”却是凶残的怪物。《圣经》中把与上帝作对的恶魔称作“the great dragon”。
随着中西文化的交流，中国的含意也逐渐为西方所接受，中国的“端午节”被译成“the dragon’s day”，这样的译法并不会引起西方读者的反感，因为他们早已把中国看成是东方的“巨龙”。
Chinese people have given a new meaning to “pine”, “winter sweet”（腊梅）, “sun” “moon”, “rosy dawn”（朝霞）, etc.. Their metaphorical meaning will arouse more colorfulassociative images in the Chinese people than in the westerners.
此外，汉语中的松、竹、梅，是文人墨客常常吟诵的对象。松柏并称，象征刚直不阿和健康长寿。竹是一种高贵气节的象征，反映人们的“傲骨亮节”。梅花在严寒中开放，傲然挺立，也成为高风亮节的象征。在英语中，松树作为一种常青树木，也象征着永生，被称做生命之树。在圣诞节，人们用松树做圣诞树来作为赎罪的象征。在英语中，plum指梅树或李树。梅在基督教中代表忠诚。在英语俚语中，plum有奖品和奖赏的含义。随着文化的交流，英语中的植物寓意在汉语中也为人们使用。例如，“橄榄枝”——和平的象征，“红玫瑰”——爱情的象征等。
汉语中的橄榄没寓意，而在英语中“橄榄枝”、“橄榄叶”却象征和平与富饶。英语中的“棕榈叶”象征胜利，某些军功勋章上也有棕榈叶的荣誉标志。而在汉语中，这种寓意不存在。
（3）Comparativestudy in English and Chinese idioms
词语中最具有引申意义的莫过于语言中的习语。习语包括成语、歇后语等。它们之间的转换可通过直译、意译、直译加意译等方式进行。汉英习语的差异主要体现在：喻体的不同、风俗的不同和文化背景上的不同。①喻体不同，例如：健壮如牛 & as strong as ahorse & & & 害群之马a blacksheep ② 风俗不同，例如：狗嘴里长不出象牙。A filthy mouth can’t utterdecent language. ③ 文化背景不同，例如：守口如瓶 &as dumb as anoyster &&
Assignments:
1.课本P.67 练习三
2. Translatethe following four paragraphs into English
1) P.191;2)P.195; 3)P198; 4)P201
马秉义，《汉译英基础教程》,中国对外翻译出版公司，2006
3. Translate theChinese passage “一件小事”（鲁迅）intoEnglish.
一件小事（鲁迅）
我从乡下跑到京城里，一转眼已经六年了。其间耳闻目睹的所谓国家大事，算起来也很不少；但在我心里，都不留什么痕迹，倘要我寻出这些事的影响来说，便只是增长了我的坏脾气，——老实说，便是教我一天比一天的看不起人。但有一件小事，却于我有意义，将我从坏脾气里拖开，使我至今忘记不得。这是民国六年的冬天，大北风刮得正猛，我因为生计关系，不得不一早在路上走。一路几乎遇不见人，好容易才雇定了一辆人力车，教他拉到S门去。不一会，北风小了，路上浮尘早已刮净，剩下一条洁白的大道来，车夫也跑得更快。刚近S门，忽而车把上带着一个人，慢慢地倒了。跌倒的是一个女人，花白头发，衣服都很破烂。伊从马路上突然向车前横截过来；车夫已经让开道，但伊的破棉背心没有上扣，微风吹着，向外展开，所以终于兜着车把。幸而车夫早有点停步，否则伊定要栽一个大斤斗，跌到头破血出了。伊伏在地上；车夫便也立住脚。我料定这老女人并没有伤，又没有别人看见，便很怪他多事，要自己惹出是非，也误了我的路。我便对他说，“没有什么的。走你的罢！” 车夫毫不理会，——或者并没有听到，——却放下车子，扶那老女人慢慢起来，搀着臂膊立定，问伊说： & &“你怎么啦？”
& &“我摔坏了。” 我想，我眼见你慢慢倒地，怎么会摔坏呢，装腔作势罢了，这真可憎恶。车夫多事，也正是自讨苦吃，现在你自己想法去。车夫听了这老女人的话，却毫不踌躇，仍然搀着伊的臂膊，便一步一步的向前走。我有些诧异，忙看前面，是一所巡警分驻所，大风之后，外面也不见人。这车夫扶着那老女人，便正是向那大门走去。我这时突然感到一种异样的感觉，觉得他满身灰尘的后影，刹时高大了，而且愈走愈大，须仰视才见。而且他对于我，渐渐的又几乎变成一种威压，甚而至于要榨出皮袍下面藏着的“小”来。我的活力这时大约有些凝滞了，坐着没有动，也没有想，直到看见分驻所里走出一个巡警，才下了车。巡警走近我说，“你自己雇车罢，他不能拉你了。” 我没有思索的从外套袋里抓出一大把铜元，交给巡警，说，“请你给他……” 风全住了，路上还很静。我走着，一面想，几乎怕敢想到自己。以前的事姑且搁起，这一大把铜元又是什么意思？奖他么？我还能裁判车夫么？我不能回答自己。这事到了现在，还是时时记起。我因此也时时煞了苦痛，努力的要想到我自己。几年来的文治武力，在我早如幼小时候所读过的“子曰诗云&一般，背不上半句了。独有这一件小事，却总是浮在我眼前，有时反更分明，教我惭愧，催我自新，并且增长我的勇气和希望。
A SMALL INCIDENT (From the &Call to Arms& collection translated by Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang)
& &Six years have slipped by since I came from the country tothe capital. During that time the number of so-called affairs of state I havewitnessed or heard about is far from small, but none of them made muchimpression. If asked to define their influence on me, I can only say they mademy bad temper worse. Frankly speaking, they taught me to take a poorer view ofpeople every day.
& &One small incident, however, which struck me as significantand jolted me out of my irritability, remains fixed even now in my memory.
& &It was the winter of 1917, a strong north wind wasblustering, but the exigencies of earning my living forced me to be up and outearly. I met scarcely a soul on the road, but eventually managed to hire arickshaw to take me to S-Gate. Presently the wind dropped a little, havingblown away the drifts of dust on the road to leave a clean broad highway, andthe rickshaw man quickened his pace. We were just approaching S-Gate when weknocked into someone who slowly toppled over.
& &It was a grey-haired woman in ragged clothes. She hadstepped out abruptly from the roadside in front of us, and although therick-shaw man had swerved, her tattered padded waistcoat, unbuttoned andbillowing in the wind, had caught on the shaft. Luckily the rickshaw man hadslowed down, otherwise she would certainly have had a bad fall and it mighthave been a serious accident.
& &She huddled there on the ground, and the rickshaw manstopped. As I did not believe the old woman was hurt and as no one else hadseen us, I thought this halt of his uncalled for, liable to land him troubleand hold me up.
& &&It's all right,& I said. &Go on.&
& &He paid no attention - he may not have heard - but set downthe shafts, took the old woman's arm and gently helped her up.
& &&Are you all right?& he asked.
& &&I hurt myself falling.&
& &I thought: I saw how slowly you fell, how could you be hurt? & &Putting on an act like this is simply disgusting. Therickshaw man asked for trouble, and now he's got it. He'll have to find his ownway out.
& & But the rickshaw man did not hesitate for a minuteafter hearing the old woman's answer. Still holding her arm, he helped herslowly forward. Rather puzzled by his I looked ahead and saw a police-station.Because of the high wind, there was no one outside. It was there that therickshaw man was taking the old woman.
& &Suddenly I had the strange sensation that his dustyretreating figure had in that instant grown larger. Indeed, the further hewalked the larger he loomed, until I had to look up to him. At the same time heseemed gradually to be exerting a pressure on me which threatened to overpowerthe small self hidden under my fur-lined gown.
& &Almost paralysed at that juncture I sat there motionless, mymind a blank, until a policeman came out. Then I got down from the rickshaw.
& &The policeman came up to me and said, &Get anotherrickshaw. He can't take you any further.&
& &On the spur of the moment I pulled a handful of coppers frommy coat pocket and handed them to the policeman. &Please give himthis,& I said.
& &The wind had dropped completely, but the road was stillquiet.
& &As I walked along thinking, I hardly dared to think aboutmyself.
& &Quite apart from what had happened earlier, what had I meantby that handful of coppers? Was it a reward? Who was I to judge the rickshawman? I could give myself no answer.
& &Even now, this incident keeps coming back to me. It keepsdistressing me and makes me try to think about myself. The politics and thefighting of those years have slipped my mind as completely as the classics Iread as a child. Yet this small incident keeps coming back to me, often morevivid than in actual life, teaching me shame, spurring me on to reform, andimbuing me with fresh courage and fresh hope. 译者：杨宪益和他夫人戴乃迭简介 & &9月17日，中国翻译协会在京举行仪式，授予我国著名文学翻译家、外国文学研究专家杨宪益先生翻译文化终身成就奖。中国外文局常务副局长、中国翻译协会常务副会长郭晓勇，中国外文局副局长、中国翻译协会副会长黄友义为杨宪益先生颁发了荣誉证书。　　郭晓勇在颁奖仪式上表示，杨宪益先生学贯中西，为中外文化交流尤其是中国文化走向世界作出了卓贡献。他翻译的中国文学作品，从先秦文学到现当代文学，跨度之大、数量之多、质量之高、影响之深，中国翻译界无人企及。特别是他与夫人戴乃迭联袂翻译的英译本《红楼梦》，已成为最受中外学者和读者认可和推崇的经典译作。　　在颁奖仪式上，杨宪益先生谦逊地表示，自己有兴趣做了些文学翻译，但成就很少，甚至可以说没有什么成就。他认为，中国的东西对外介绍得还远远不够。他还寄语青年翻译工作者对自己的文化要多了解一点，多看一些书。杨宪益先生译著等身，他与夫人戴乃迭合作，把《楚辞》、《离骚》、《史记选》、《青春之歌》、《鲁迅选集》等大量中国古今文学名著译成英文，同时把阿里斯托芬、荷马、萧伯纳等欧洲古今文学家的名著译成中文。此外，他还撰有《译余偶拾》、《零墨新笺》等学术著作多种。翻译文化终身成就奖由中国翻译协会于2006年设立，是表彰翻译家个人的最高荣誉奖项。到目前为止，杨宪益先生是获得该奖项的第二位翻译家。2006年9月26日，季羡林先生成为首位翻译文化终身成就奖获得者。
延安大学外国语学院教师教案（首页）
Chapter 5LexicalTranslation
I. Denotative Meaning & Associative Meaning
1. Denotativemeaning: (also known as conceptual meaning) is themeaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of the word meaning. Itforms the basis for communication as the same word has the same denotativemeaning to all the speakers of the same language.
（1）Word-for-word equivalence (词与词的对等)
Some English and Chinese denotative meanings are identical, becausesome things and phenomena in the world and man’s ability and the manner ofcognition are identical. So there appears full equivalence between English andChinese words. This is most evidently shown in proper nouns and technicalterms. For example:
拖拉机 tractor & & & & & & & & & &欧姆定律 &ohm’s law &
维生素 vitamin & & & & & & & & & &台风 & & typhoon
马克思主义 Marxism激光laser & & & 阿司匹林 &Aspirin
白血病 &leukemia[lju:'ki:mi?]
(2) One word with several equivalents of differentmeanings (多词多意)
汉语中有的词，在英语中可以找到多个近义词来翻译，而这些近义词本身的意义不尽相同。因此翻译时，需要我们仔细辨别。This is very common in translation.For example:&
笑：smile（微笑） ,
laugh（出声笑） ,
giggle（咯咯的笑，傻笑） ,
chuckle（抿着嘴笑） ,
sneer（嘲笑）等
走：go （走动，走过，离去）如：Let’s go. Let’s leave.
& & Walk(行走，步行) ,
saunter（闲逛，漫步）如：Saunter along Oxford StreetWindow-shopping(沿牛津街漫步浏览商店橱窗),
trot（疾走，快步走）
羊：sheep绵羊, goat, ram公羊, eve母羊, lamb小羊
机：machine, engine, plane,aircraft…
cousin:堂兄、堂弟、堂姐、堂妹、表哥、表弟、表姐、表妹…
president：总统、总裁、主席、董事长、议长、会长、社长、校长…
carry：搬、运、送、提、拎、挑、担、抬、背、扛、搂、抱、端、举、夹、捧…
(3) One word with multiple equivalents of the samemeaning(一词多意)
This is a common case in translation. Forexample:
人：man , person ,human being ,people等
Hound（猎犬） ,Dog used for hunting.
Spaniel獚（一种毛长耳垂之犬） ,
Mastiff獒 ,（一种大猛犬，两耳下垂，多做看守用）
pointer , （一种短毛大猎犬，）
setter , （一种长毛猎狗，）
retriever（一种用以寻回猎物之猎犬，）
wife: 妻子、爱人、夫人、老婆、老伴、媳妇、堂内、内人…
potato:马铃薯、洋芋、土豆、山药蛋…
(4)Equivalents interwoven with one another (词义交织)
In this case, a certain word may be treateddifferently according to various circumstances or collocations. F 在这种情况下，一个词根据不同的搭配，可以选择不同的英文词语来翻译。例如：
说：say , speak ,talk ,tell & & & & &讲：speak ,say , talk , tell &
谈：talk, speak, say ,tell & & & & & 诉：tell, talk, speak, say&
（5）Words without corresponding equivalents(无对应词)
In this case, an explanation is given insteadof an equivalent. For example:
Teenager:13至19岁的青少年
Cyberslacker：利用工作时间在公司上网、做与工作无关的事情的雇员。
Meatloaf朋友、同事之间以群体信件的方式自发传播的电子信件。
阴：Yin (inChinese thought) the soft inactive female principle or force in the world
阳yang(inChinese thought) the strong active male principle or force in the world
（目不识）丁： (not know one’s)ABC
汉语中有些词在英语里无法找到对应词，例如妯娌，连襟，亲家，休妻等。
See students’ book (P.70-71)
2.Associative meaning: is the secondary meaning supplementedto the denotative meaning. It is liable to the influence of such factors asculture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background,education, etc.
eg. “cat”：①a kind of animal which has so ② one of the associative meanings of cat is malicious woman. “It is a cat.” (它是一只猫) &“She is a cat.”（她是一个心地狠毒的女人）
“洋灰”①cement (水泥) ②imported goods（洋货）
“洋火”①match (火柴)②imported goods（洋货）
As some English and Chinese denotative meanings are identical, soare some associative meanings, because some things and phenomena in the worldand man’s ability and the manner of cognition are identical.
Furthermore, toChinese people, it is easy for them to understand the connotation of thesentence
“East wind overwhelmed west wind”.
Since in theChinese revolutionary history, east wind is compared to revolutionary force,while west wind refers to reactionary force. In the West, east wind and westwind are just wind of different directions in nature. It is difficult for thewesterners to understand the revolutionary sense of the sentence.
See students’ book (P.72-79)
See students’book (P. 79-81)
II. LexicalTranslation and Linguistic Context
1.Definition of context
Context plays an important role in determining meaning. It can limitthe range of possible interpretations of a word, a phrase etc. According to NewWebster’s Encyclopedic Dictionary of the English Language (1997): “Contextrefers to the parts of written or spoken statement that precede or follow aspecified word or passage that can influence i or refersto the set of circumstances or facts that surround a particular event,situation etc.”
2.Determining the meaning of words in the source language from context
根据上下文准确理解原文词义
既然汉语和英语在词汇方面有着如此多的差异，因此我们在汉译英时应仔细选择词语，使译文忠实贴切，更好地为英语读者所接受。首先，应根据上下文正确理解原文词义。(See students’ book p.83)
“书”这个词在汉语中是一个常用的词，它跟不同的词搭配可组成不同的词语，因此英语里应选择不同的词语来翻译。&
一本书 & & & & & & & a book &
申请书 & & & & & & & letter of application&
协议书 & & & & & & & Agreement &
家书 & & & & & & & & a letter from home &
（使用）说明书 & & & &Direction&
成交确认书 & & & & & Sales Confirmation&
情书 & & & & & & & & a love letter &
国书 & & & & & & & & credentials&
协议书 & & & & & & & protocol&
证书 & & & & & & & & certification&
书报亭 & & & & & & & news-stand&
书画 & & & & & & & & painting and calligraphy&
书房 & & & & & & & & study&
书记 & & & & & & & & secretary&
书生 & & & & & & & & intellectual&
参考书目 & & & & & & bibliography&
奋笔疾书 & & & & & & wield one’s writing brush energetically&
“信”这个词在汉语中也非常有用，它跟不同的字词搭配也可组成不同的词语，因而有着不同的含义。翻译时，我们也应该正确理解词义，选用恰当的英语词语来翻译：&
一封信 & & & & & & & &a letter &
去取信 & & & & & & & &to fetch mail &&
失信 & & & & & & & & &to break promise&
信守诺言 & & & & & & &to keep one’s promise &
信以为真 & & & & & & &to accept sth. as true & &&
信不信 & & & & & & & &to believe it or not &
信佛 & & & & & & & & &to profess Buddhism&
取信于民 & & & & & & &to win people’s confidence &
信口开河 & & & & & & &to talk irresponsibly &
信笔 & & & & & & & & &to write freely &
信步 & & & & & & & & &to stroll idly&
信风 & & & & & & & & &trade wind &
信（达、雅） & & & & &faithfulness&
善男信女 & & & & & & &devout men and women&
信史 & & & & & & & & &authentic history&
（3） 情况&
这个词的意义与英语里的 circumstances ,condition ,situation 等词语相近。但是在实际中应该如何理解与翻译，我们必须根据上下问来决定。&
在这种情况下&
& & Undersuch circumstances/ such being the case
这种情况必须改变&
& & Thisstate of affairs must change.
现在情况不同了。&
& & Now thingsare different.
情况怎么样？&
& & How domatters stand?
他问起了她的健康情况。&
& & Heinquired after her health. ( inquired after: ask about sb’s health or welfare)问候
前线有什么情况？ &
& & How isthe situation at the front?
“事”这个词，在通常情况下的对应是thing，但是在不同的上下文，它的意思也会发生变化。在翻译时也该根据上下文正确理解然后加以选择。&
把坏事变成好事 & & to turn a bad thing into a good one &
公事 & & & & & & & public affairs &
惹事 & & & & & & & &tomake trouble &
从事 & & & & & & & to be engaged in &
英雄事迹 & & & & & heroic deeds &&
事倍功半 & & & & & to get half the results with double the effort &
卢沟桥事变 & & & & the Lugouqiao Incident &&
平安无事 & & & & & All is well .&
还有些未完成的事要处理。 &
& There is stillsome unfinished business to settle.
我们就这事请教过他。&
& We have consultedhim about the matter.
有事大家做。&
& We should allshare the work.
请回去吧，这没你的事了。&
&Please go back, there isnothing of your concern now.
通过以上例子我们可以看出，汉语词语在不同的上下文中，其意义也是不一样的。因此在汉译英时首先我们遇到的问题就是正确理解词义。只有在正确理解词义之后，我们才能选择正确的词语加以翻译。
3.Determining the meaning of words in the target language from context
区别词语，正确选词
一个汉语词，在英语中可能有多个同义或不同义的词语可供选择。翻译时应区别这些词语的意义，正确选择一个词。我们应该从以下几个方面来考虑。
（1） 词的广义与狭义&
“文化”在汉语中经常为人们所使用，它可以和不同的词语搭配，从而产生不同的词语，其意义也有广义和狭义之区别。例如：
西方文化 & & & & & & western culture (civilization)&
文化界 & & & & & & & culture circle &
文化人 & & & & & & & intellectuals&
文化程度 & & & & & & schooling &
文化用品 & & & & & & &stationery &
“文化”在“西方文化”中是广义，而在“文化用品”中是狭义，应该正确区分，加以选择。又如：
农业是国民经济的基础。&
& &Agricultureis the foundation of our national economy.
这些年来，我国的农业、林业、畜牧业和渔业都得到了相应的发展。（副业sideline production）&
& &Over the years,corresponding developments have been made in our farming , forestry , animalhusbandry and fishery .
（2）词义的强弱
在翻译过程中，还应该注意词义的强弱，如：
法西斯的暴行激起了全世界人民极大的愤怒。
The atrocities of the fascists[ 'f&?ist ] roused thepeople in the world to great indignation.
这里的“愤怒”含义强烈，因此在译文内里选用了“indignation”,而不用“anger”
他吓得魂不附体。
He was terrified out of his senses.
原文如果译成was very afraid 或 was very frightened都不能准确地表达出“魂不附体”的含义。
（3）词的褒义和贬义
英语和汉语的词语都有褒义和贬义之分，翻译时我们应该注意。
“死”这个词在汉语里的褒义词：长眠、牺牲、献身、与世长辞、仙逝等，贬义词有：寿终正寝、一命呜呼、见阎王、毙命等。而在英语中，褒义词有：pass away , go to glory ,rest in peace ,return to earth 等 ; 贬义词有end one’s days ,kick off ,commitsuicide , meet one’s death ,kick the bucket ,turn up one’s toes 等
他那九十岁高龄的父亲与上周去世了。
His father passed away at an advanced age ofninety last week.
臭名昭彰的希特勒终于一命呜呼了。
Notorious Hitler did kick the bucket at longlast.
（4）词的语体色彩
词的语体色彩是人们长期使用语言的过程中所形成的，它主要包括口头语和书面语色彩。口头语是人们在日常生活中口语交际所使用的语言，口头语中常使用具有明显口语色彩的词语、时髦词及现实俚语；而书面语多用与科技、政治等文体中，句式完整，语言严谨、紧凑，多使用正式文体的词语。翻译时要根据不同的文体来选择不同的词语。
以其人之道，还治其人之身。
A &Pay him in his own coin.
B &Do unto them what they do unto us.
A，B 两种译文都译出了原文的含义，但译文A 在语体上较为随便，有口语色彩，而B句中的unto 以及what在语体色彩上更接近原文，即反映出了包含的针锋相对，毫不退缩的语气和书面中的对称。
禁止赌博。
Gambling is prohibited.
原文“禁止的语体色彩较为正式，故译做prohibited
坚决打击经济犯罪活动
Combat Economic crime.
原文为文章标题，立场鲜明，言简意赅，是典型的正式文体。翻译时用combat 来代替fight，struggle ,因为combat比这两个词更正式，符合原文的语体色彩。
这小伙子干活真冲！
This young fellow does his work with vim and vigor.
“真冲”是口语体，因此翻译时相应地使用了口语词vim .
符合英语惯用法
翻译时还应考虑译文是否符合英语的惯用法，是否属于地道的英语。
“要” 在汉语里可以出现在不同的句式里面，表达的意义和含义的语气都不相同。翻译时不能千篇一律，而应考虑译文是否地道达意。
各国人民都要和平}