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關注我們：A weekly podcast and blog on the history of England from the arrival of the West Saxons in 516 to the death of Victoria in 1901.
Email comments, questions or ideas to
The History of England and the Anglo Saxon England podcasts have joined a network - call Agora. It's early days, but we are a marketplace of like minded, independent podcasters, who want to work together to create and share new ideas, and introduce listeners to new podcasts. We even have a website - ; and a. So all come along and see what we've got. 
Each month or so we'll probably pick one of our number to tell you more about. This month it's Steve Guerra's History of the Papacy. I can imagine few subjects with a longer more colourful history - seriously, every single aspect of human nature from the heroic to the venal, from Saints to Sinners like the Borgias will be captured.
Some of you will already know the podcast, since Steve did a guest episode sometime ago - number 99 I think. Well now Steve's reached the 5th century, so why not hop along to his , or use the RSS feed which is /historyofthepapacy, 
After the victory at Northampton and the Act of Accord, it looked as though all Richard of York had to do was wait or the crown to be his. But in the north and west, the Lancastrian opposition was growing. 
The Campaigns of 1460 and ;
Wakefield, 30th December 1460
Just to help you follow all the wandering around, here are 3 maps which give you an idea of the what goes on in the fights and struggles of this episode. 
While Queen Margaret fled to Scotland to arrange a deal with Mary of Guelders, Lancastrian supporters were ordered to gather at Hull. The Yorkists split up - Warwick stayed in London, Edward Earl of March was sent to the West to deal with Jasper Tudor, and Salisbury and York went to the north. On 30th December, York and Salisbury met Somerset in Battle outside their castle of Sandal, and the result was a crushing defeat. Reputedly, as York was captured the Lancastrians in the battle: 
...stood him [York ] on a little anthill and placed on his head, as if a crown, a vile garland made of reeds, just as the Jews did to the Lord, and bent the knee to him, saying in jest, 'Hail King, without rule. Hail King, without ancestry, Hail leader and prince, with almost no subjects or possessions'. And having said this and various other shameful and dishonourable things to him, at last they cut off his head.
Certainly the heads of York and Salisbury found themselves pinned to Micklegate Bar in York when Queen Margaret arrived from Scotland, with Scottish troops and a treaty with Scotland - support at the price of the fortresses of Roxborough and Berwick. 
Mortimer's Cross, 2nd February 1461
There was better news for the Yorkists in the West. The Earl of Wiltshire with troops from his Irish estates joined with JasperTudor, and together they marched towards Hereford, intending to meet with the Queen as she marched south to London. Edward of March had started towards London to join with Warwick when he'd heard of the defeat at W but instead turned north to head off Tudor and Wiltshire. His victory at Ms Cross gave the Yorkists hope, and established Edward's reputation as a warrior and commander. Edward turned to march east to London. 
St Albans, 17th February 1461
Margaret, Somerset, the Lancastrian lords and the Scottish troops burned and ravaged their way south. Their reputation went before them, and the brutality of the army did the Lancastrian cause great damage. Warwick gathered a fresh army, with loans from the City of London, and Bu Edward was far away, but with the Duke of Norfolk, Baron Montagu and Earl of Suffolk, Warwick's army took up a defensive, fortified position in St Albans, blocking the roads southwards.
Battle was joined late on the 17th February - Edward was till far away in the Cotswolds. During 16th and 17th, Somerset had swung his army westwards, and as the entered St Albans on Warwick's left flank. In the confusion of trying to adjust, Warwick's army was routed. Warwick managed to pull together a remnant of his army, and marched west to find Edward, who had reached the Cotswolds. Margaret and the Prince Edward found Henry sitting under a tree laughing and singing. Margaret prepared to march on London and reclaim the government of England
Warwick swashed and buckled his way up and down the channel until the Yorkists were ready to invade England again. But on his return from Ireland with horns and trumpets blowing, Richard of York had a shock for his allies.
The Parliament of Devils, 1459
Here was revenge for the house of Lancaster. At the parliament, the Yorkist lords were attainted - that is they were guilty of treachery, and their lives were forfeit. But a Bill of Attainder was much worse than that, because it struck at what was really important to your 15th century magnate - his family. Because the Bill of Attainder also stripped all members of the family of their riches, including any heirs. It was in effect wiping the family from the face of history. 
The Battle of Northampton
Warwick, Salisbury and the earl of March (the future king Edward) landed in Kent in June 1460, and quickly marched north to London - where they were welcomed. Warwick and March led the army as quickly as they could towards the royal court at Coventry. Buckingham and the Queen were caught hopping - but constructed strong defensive works on the banks of the river Nene at Northampton. The Lancastrians may have numbered 5,000, and the Yorkists 10,000. 
The result was a complete rout for the Yorkists - because one of the Lancastrian commanders, Grey of Ruthin, deserted to the Yorkists. Buckingham, Egrement (one of the Percies!) and Shrewsbury all lost their lives and king Henry was captured - laughing and singing in his tent. 
Richard of York claims the throne
Richard landed at Chester on 8th September - and grandly made his way south with a great fuss, his sword carried before him - like a king. Parliament was assembled. The Registrum Abbatiae Johannis Whethamstede records what happened: 
…the Duke of York, with the pomp of a great following, arrived in no small
for he came with horns and trumpets and men at arms, and very many other servants. And entering the palace there, he marched straight through the great hall until he came to that solemn room where the king was accustomed to hold parliament with his commons. And when he arrived there, he advanced with determined step until he reached the royal throne, and there he laid his hand on the cushion…like a man about to take possession of his right, and kept his hand there for a short while. At last, drawing it back, he turned his face towards the people, and standing still under the cloth of state, he looked attentively at the gazing assembly. 
In fact, Richard's actions shocked and horrified Lancastrians, neutrals and Warwick and Salisbury. But a deal was worked out - Henry would reign, but York and his heirs would succeed him. Whether or not Margaret of Anjou would agree was another matter. 
I found it rather difficult to cover the critical events and battles around Formigny and Casttillon in quite the same depth as I covered Agincourt, Crecy and Poitiers. Obviously, I should be more objective. 
But Carl Rylett of the s podcast is made of sterner stuff, so here he is. If you want to know more about Carl's podcast, check him out on iTunes or hop along to his website . 
There's a fascinating article by Leslie et al. and map created by a research project funded by the Wellcome trust. It's all about creating a genetic map of the British Isles, to challenge or maybe confirm all those stories we have in the British Isles about where we come from. 
It's always a little dangerous of course to pick up an article from the paper, since I can't claim to have a proper handle on the intricacies of the research but it's definitely worth a read. The thing is that it seems to chime with so much of
as well as providing a few insights. 
And then Stuart, a History of England listener, and clearly a man with a brain has also done some work looking at the data, and representing some of it much more clearly. The image allows you to see more of the detailed European origins data collected correlated with the British data. 
The broad conclusions seem to be that: 
they support what we know about historical migrations - i.e. that English ancestry is heavily influence by migration from Anglo Saxons.
But the evidence points not to a replacing of the local population by the new arrivals - very much the opposite, the migrants clearly assimilated the local population. 
It shows there's a difference between England and Wales and Scotland.
But is also throws up some interesting points - there doesn't seem to be a significant influence from the Danish V there's no evidence of a significantly different group we might call the Jutes, always the most questioned part of  Bede's famous entry. 
There's more detail below if you want to read on - and of course nothing beats going to the original paper! The conclusions lifted from the paper with some comments from me... 
The majority of eastern, central and southern England is made up of a single, relatively homogeneous, genetic group with a significant DNA contribution from Anglo-Saxon migrations (10-40% of total ancestry). 
So that's interesting. It confirms the idea of the Anglo saxon invasions, but also debunks the idea that the invaders wiped out the British population. Some of the variation about what percentage comes from how you interpret the DEN18 and FRA17 it could be that these are influenced by the data about saxon migrants - and if so the percentage of Saxon migrants would be much higher, up to 50%. I was tempted to think that FRA17 could be something to do with the Normans, but apparently this is a genetic marker very widespread in Britain (except Wales), and very early - so more likely to be from early Anglo Saxon markers. There is no significant, distinctive marker from the Norman invasions. 
The population in Orkney emerged as the most genetically distinct, with 25% of DNA coming from Norwegian ancestors. This shows clearly that the Norse Viking invasion (9th century) did not simply replace the indigenous Orkney population.
The Orkneys sound worth more than a few studies of their own! on a sort of cross roads for travellers and invaders from Scandinavia. 
The Welsh appear more similar to the earliest settlers of Britain after the last ice age than do other people in the UK.
There is no obvious genetic signature of the Danish Vikings, who controlled large parts of England (“The Danelaw”) from the 9th century.
I'd seen an earlier study that did show groups that seemed to correspond with Bede's divisions. No longer it seems! And you'll notice there's no room in this for the Jutes!
There is genetic evidence of the effect of the Landsker line – the boundary between English-speaking people in south-west Pembrokeshire (sometimes known as “Little England beyond Wales”) and the Welsh speakers in the rest of Wales, which persisted for almost a millennium.
The Norman invasions of southern wales from the 11th century? 
The analyses suggest there was a substantial migration across the channel after the original post-ice-age settlers, but before Roman times. DNA from these migrants spread across England, Scotland, and Northern Ireland, but had little impact in Wales.
Many of the genetic clusters show similar locations to the tribal groupings and kingdoms around end of the 6th century, after the settlement of the Anglo-Saxons, suggesting these tribes and kingdoms may have maintained a regional identity for many centuries
The original article is attached here, with some helpful highlights for key bits from Stuart!
Hello everyone. I hope that Christmas shaped up as well as you hoped...everything went very well here you'll be glad to know, including the addition of a good 4 lbs to date which I could ill afford anyway. Finding it increasingly difficult to get into the shed...
Anyway, since everything is more complicated with 2 podcasts, I thought I should do a schedule every quarter. And so that's exactly what I have done. Here it is. Applause, please.
Um, from now on you will see that under 'Index' on the RH side, there is 'The Latest Schedule'. I'll keep that  up to date as I go. If I remember. Which I may or may not. 
Have fun. 
The fall of Constantinople in 1453 is one of the most momentous events in world history. Sure, the power of the Roman Empire
but here at last was the end of the story that had started with Romulus and Remus on the mountainside in Latium. 
Paul Vincent is the author of two podcasts, and you can link to them to find out more here.  They are , and . 
In 1459 the trigger point after a year of phony war, both sides preparing for war, the call for a great council in 1459 proving the trigger point. By the end of 1459 the fortune of one of the two sides would lie in ruins.
The swashbuckling Warwick
Between 1457 and 1457 Warwick was in his element as Captain of Calais. He solved the problem of feeding and paying his men by frankly turning to piracy. But with his raids on Italian merchants at Tilbury docks, on a fleet of 28 Spanish ships, on a merchant of Lubeck, Warwick was playing to the xenophobia and patriotism of the London Gallery. And the gallery loved it. 
&All the commons of this land had him in great praise and love…and so made his reputation as the greatest knight living&
The Battle of Blore Heath, 23rd September 1459
Through 1459 both sides spoke of peace and prepared for war. When the Queen ordered Warwick, Salisbury and York to a great council, it was the end - they knew the council would not be a happy time for them. Salisbury was at Middleham in Y York was at Ludlow on the W Warwick at Calais. The signal came from Warwick landing in Kent, and making his way towards Wales. Salisbury came south, while the Queen charged Audley to cut Salisbury off before he could reach Ludlow and York. In this he suceeded.
The two armies faced each other on opposing ridges, with a stream between. Audley with 10,000 men and Salisbury with 5,000, neither keen to attack through the boggy ground and up the hill in the teeth of the inevitable arrow storm. Salisbury feigned a retreat - Audley fell for it and attacked. The result was a disaster for Lancaster, with Audley left dead on the field along with 2,000 others, and Salisbury free to continue to Ludlow. 
Ludford Bridge
At Worcester cathedral, Warwick, Salisbury and York swore to fight together and protect each other to the end. On 10th October from Ludlow, with Cecily Neville and York's family the 3 wrote a letter to the King professing their loyalty. O n 12th October the royal army appeared on the other side of the bridge that defended Ludlow - Ludford Bridge. 
The royal army was enormous. on the night of 12th October, Andrew Trollope and 400 men of Calais deserted to the King's army. On the morning of the 13th, the Yorkist army found their leaders fled - York and his son Edmund of Rutland to Ireland, Warwick, Salisbury and York's eldest son and heir Edward Earl of March to North Devon, thence to Guernsey and finally to Calais. The Yorkist cause lay in ruins. 
Now those of you who have been with me for a while will know that I love Alfred as a brother. He is the greatest of E a man who kept his head every the last hope of the Anglo Saxons against the all powerful, all conquering Danes. A man who, while everything around him burned was able to think about the long term - build a vision of a united Anglo Saxon state, recognise the importance of language and learning as a tool of government and nationhood. 
But there's a caveat to all of this. There were no flies on Alfred, and he was a clever bloke, make no mistake about that. The sharpest of the knives in the drawer. And quite uniquely in English history at least, Alfred controlled the message. Almost everything we know about Alfred from a written sense comes from him - he commissioned the Anglo Saxon chronicle (probably - his time anyway), and if you are a Dane or Mercian looking for even-handed balanced reporting - don't go there for it. He got his good mate Asser to write a biography of him. So you are left wondering, just slightly - can he really have been as wonderful as he seemed? 
So I was interested to read that the other day, some bloke was out with his metal detector near the little town of Watlington in the shadow of the Chiltern Hills. And he struck it lucky - a hoard of mainly silver, coins and bangles, and a scrap of gold. Congratulations! 
Now in there is a coin that may tell a story. Its a coin, with on one side the image of a man called Ceolwulf and Alfred sat together in majesty. 
Ceolwulf, who he I hear you ask? Well, he was King of the mighty Mercians, son of King Burgred. The West Saxons and Mercians had fought together before, in 868; but Burgred had in the end fled to Rome in the face of Danish violence. The Anglo Saxon Chronicle does a hatchet job on Ceolwulf. 
874: This year went the army [the Danes] from Lindsey to Repton, and there took up their winter-quarters, drove the king, Burgred, over sea, when he had reigned about two and twenty winters, and subdued all that land. He then went to Rome, and there remained to the end of his life...And the same year they gave Ceolwulf, a foolish king's thegn, the Mer and he swore oaths to them, and gave hostages, that it should be ready for them on whatever da and he would be ready with himself, and with all those that would remain with him, at the service of the army. 
So Ceolwulf is just a loser then? Well, hang on a second. Ceolwulf seems to have fought the Danes with Alfred. He remains king after the victory Alfred wins and the peace with Guthrum. He fights and beats the Welsh. Ceolwulf was no push over. And then there's this coin - this is a coin that shows an alliance between two equals, Mercia and Wessex. 
Could it be that poor Ceolwulf is the victim of rewritten history? Alfred didn't want the powerful, dominant Mercia back again - he wanted and Anglo Saxon Kingdom dominated by Wessex, and Ceolwulf would have been in the way. He wanted Wessex, not Mercia, to be the saviour of England. So maybe, just maybe, he had Ceolwulf written out of history. 
Still, you can't make an omelette without breaking eggs!
In 1455 it briefly looked as though Y but in fact it solved nothing - the king remained the centre of power, and the king was weak. By 1457, he had lost his status as Protector, and the Queen was effectively the new ruler of England. 
The Love Day of 1458
By&#, Queen Margaret had remove the court to Coventry and Kenilworth, centres of Lancastrian power. There she gather around a her and the king a court  to her liking. Salisbury was never invited, York only twice - and then was humiliated. 
But then a French fleet raided and burned Sandwich. Nothing  could demonstrate ho w low England had fallen. The raid coincided with a return of the king's lucidity, and court returned to London. Henry, such as he was a force for anything, was a force for peace. His queen was ruling for the sake of a faction - the Beauforts - and king Henry could see that. 
And so Henry ordered a Love Day. The idea was that all the nobility would walk together, arm in arm, through the streets of London to St Paul's Cathedral. There they would sing and pray together, and all would be well. 
All happened as the King ordered. Young Somerset and Salisbu Warwick and Exeter walked arm in arm, the King walked in the middle and York and Margaret brought up the rear. All it achieved was to through the rivalries into clear and public relief - the Love Day solved nothing, because it could not address the basic problem of the king's weakness. 
In 1455, the quality and nature of the arguments and disputes about the king's fitness to reign and the need to reform the way England was governed changed very significantly. At St Albans, blood was spilled. 
In 1455, Henry, newly restored to sanity, issued writs for an odd sounding parliament at Leicester. Salisbury, Warwick and York didn't buy it  - here was another set up, just like Dartford. So they gathered an army, and marched, professing their loyalty as they went. 
Somerset and the king seemed blind to the dangers, and set off from London none the less. At Albans, they suddenly realised they were in trouble, facing an army of 3,000, while the king had only 2,000 with him. Henry sacked Somerset in an attempt to appease York - but to no avail. The battle of St Albans was joined. 
The History of England is having a facelift  - and this is the new logo. Quite possibly this will irritate you all, given that people don't like changes, but you see when I originally started I never imagined for a moment that anyone would listen, and so spent precisely 2 minutes choosing the image. I'd rather have one that I own, and so this is what Emily Harris came up with. Sorry about that!
ALSO I will be chan the same theme music I use for the History of Anglo Saxon England. This I have been lucky enough to talk my mate Davie into producing something for me. Thank you Davie, I love it. It’s a folk song that inspired Led Zep to create Black Mountain Side, and since I love Led Zep almost as much as I love Douglas Adams, it’s a great choice. Should any of you, reasonably close to the south of England, want to hear some really good guitar playing to help charity, then follow this link to  on Facebook. 
I'll make the switch for the next episode - which will be next Sunday (22nd November), and be called 'Bloodshed'. As opposed to David's shed. Arf, and if you will, arf.  
In 1452 and 1453 Henry enjoyed a brief spell where he was on top of his job after the events at Dartford. But fate had something in mind.
How did previous generations view the Wars of the Roses? What are the interpretations of the Wars of the Roses now? This, and an introduction to some key families, are what this week is all about.
It's still 1450. Because it was something of an eventful year. Richard of York, sat in Ireland, was worried - his name had been bandied about by Jack Cade and his rebels. See what happens...
Some links
First of all,m if you don't know the History of Byzantium, and would like to, hop along to . It's a great series.  
Secondly, I'm starting up a series of Wars of the Roses pages, just to help you all navigate through the mess of families that hop in and out of each others' beds. Look at the Left Hand N or to read about a few of the major families in 1450, follow this link to .
Richard Duke of York,
Son of the disgraced Richard Earl of Cambridge, despite his long minority Richard was born to the fortunes of York and Mortimer, and descended from The Duke of Clarence, Edward III's son. There was no sign before 1450 that Richard was anything other than a loyal servant of the king - serving in France as Lieutenant General. Then he was ousted, and replaced by Edmund Beaufort. Historians disagree about how Richard took this - but being appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland may very well not have been the reward it sounds like - in Ireland he was safely far away from the king. Richard was alienated by a feeling that he was denied his birthright - being in the closest counsels of the king. 
His return in 1450 was dramatic - he came without permission. Beaufort was now effectively the chief Minister of the king and Queen, and all 3 appeared to panic trying to prevent York's return. 
 By 1451, civil wa but a pattern of antipathy between Beaufort, Queen Margaret and York was becoming established, and York 's ambitions being thwarted. 
Margaret of Anjou,
What to make of Margaret? It's always worth bearing in mind that women like Margaret who stepped outside the mould will be unfairly judged by contemporary chroniclers. From the start of her relationship with Henry, it seems both got on well - spending more time together than was expected of a king and queen at the time. She was reasonably traditional in her role, su tho and appears frequently in the minutes of the King's council as grants were made 'by the queen's counsel'; so it appears she became more involved, and the political situation sharpened, and her husband's lack of capability .became more evident., 
After 8 years of marriage, by 1452 the couple still showed no signs of producing a child. 
Livery Badges, Bastard feudalism and the Wars of the Roses
The prevailing theory about why the Wars of the Roses happened was, at one point very much about 'bastard feudalism'and the 'overmighty subjects'. The story goes that by the 15th century, the relationship between a lord and his retinue had changed - no longer based on an honest knight and his patch of land, but no a money fee, based on an 'indenture' or contract. And that as a result, lords traipsed around the countryside with massive retinues of followers. Which is true - they did. A magnate gave out robes of particular colours, and livery badges by which and ther and the 15th century was a violent time. The general feeling is that this wasn't the fault
in earlier centuries, a magnates affinity was just as important. The reasons for the war had more to do with Henry VIth's failure to control his magnates. 
But b below is one example, one of Henry VIth's badges. I've had a rootle around and tried to find the ones I could - guided, obviously, by that authoritative historical resource, the game Kingmaker...so you can find them all by clicking on this link to my page . 
The Anglo Saxon England Podcast
I have to say there's been a mixed response so far, to be brutal. A few folks have poured their despair over me that I should go back to the dear old Anglo Saxons just as we were about to embark on the Wars of the Roses.
Well look, fear not, seriously. I will not desert you, it has just caused a small hiccup in the progress of the main series. But you must indulge me - I couldn't leave those original episodes as they were.
Anyway, episodes are going up, just click on the logo and go and have a look!
PLUS I have to organise some sort of schedule between the two. So here's a table as an attempt to take up up to Christmas. 
The History of England
Anglo Saxon England
Adventus Saxonum
Not a sausage
Not a sausage
Building a new world
Founding kingdoms
The Life and Times }