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智课网IELTS备考资料剑桥雅思5阅读翻译：电木BAKELITEBAKELITEThebirthofmodernplastics电木现代塑料的诞生1907年，一位在纽约工作的比利时科学家LeoHendrickBaekeland，发现了一种革命性的新型合成材料并注册了专利。他的发明，他称之为“电木”，极具技术重要性，并且有效地启动了现代塑料工业。“塑料”这一术语来自希腊语的plassein，意思是“塑造”。有些塑料来自于天然资源，有些是半合成的(天然材料的基础上进行化学反应的结果)，还有一些是完全合成的，就是从煤炭和石油的组分当中通过化学方法加工而成的。有些是“热塑性塑料”，意味着它们象烛蜡一样，在加热时会融化并且可以被重塑。其它塑料是“热硬化性的”：象鸡蛋一样，不能还原原本的粘性状态，因此它们的形状是永远固定的。电木，因为是第一种全合成热硬化塑料而享有盛名。现代塑料的历史起始于19世纪中期一系列半合成热塑性材料的发现。这些早期塑料的发展的推动力是由许多因素造成的——化学领域巨大的技术进步，再结合广泛的文化变革，以及为日渐稀少的奢侈品供应找到可接受的替代品的实际需求，比如玳瑁和象牙。Baekeland对塑料的兴趣开始于1885年，那个时候，作为一个年轻的比利时的化学学生，他着手研究酚醛树脂，苯酚(石碳酸)和乙醛(一种象酒精一样的挥发性液体)结合后所产生的一组粘性物质。然而不久他放弃了这个项目，几年后才将它拣起。到了1905年时，因为发明了新的照相纸，他刚刚发了财，成为一个富有的纽约人。尽管Baekeland忙于积聚钱财，在塑料的开发方面他依然取得了进步。1899年和1990年见证了第一种能够工业化规模生产的半合成热硬化材料的专利注册。从纯科学的角度来讲，Baekeland对这一领域的贡献与其说是以他自己名字命名的材料事实上的发现，还不如说是苯酚和甲醛之间的反应能够被控制的方法，进而使这种材料的商业化制备成为可能。日，Baekeland申请取得了他的著名专利，专利描述这一制备过程，其基本要素现在依然在使用。原型专利概括出一个三阶段过程，在这个过程中，首先将苯酚和甲醛在真空状态下在一个大的卵型壶内进行化学合成。合成物是一种被称为Novalak的树脂，加热后变得可溶解并具有延展性。树脂放在浅盘里让其冷却直至固化，随后将它打碎并研磨成粉末。接下来加入其它材料，包括填充物，比如木粉、石棉或者棉花，以提高强度和防潮性，催化剂(加速两种不能彼此结合的化学成分之间的化学反应的物质)和hexa，一种氨和甲醛的复合剂，它为热硬化树脂的形成提供必要的额外的甲醛。这种树脂随后被冷却、变硬、再一次被研磨。所得到的颗粒状粉末就是电木原料，可以被制成广泛的机器制成品。在最后阶段，加热了的电木被倒入一个所需形状的空模具中，耐受高温和高压，进而“固定”了其毕生的形状。电木物品的设计，每一件东西从耳饰到电视机壳，很大程度上受制于铸造过程的技术要求。物品不能被设计成卡在模具中很难拿出来。习惯的通用规范是，朝向模具最深处物品应该越来越细，必要的情况下，产品可以分成几个单元分别铸造。模具需要仔细设计，以便熔化了的电木能够均匀而完全地流入模具。尖角被证明是不可取的，所以要避免，这导致了平滑的、流线型设计风格在二十世纪三十年代的流行。模具壁的厚度同样至关重要：厚的模具壁使冷却和硬化的时间加长，为了能发挥机器的最大使用效率，对这个因素设计师必须加以考虑。在最初的年头里，尽管被人所轻视，Baekeland的发明一直受到前所未有的欢迎，这种流行持续并贯穿了二十世纪上半叶。作为“具有成千上万种用途的材料”，它成为工业扩张的新世界里的神奇产品。既防渗又耐热，电木厨房用品被当成无菌和可消毒产品来促销。电气制造商抓住其绝缘的特征;各地的消费者喜欢其令人眼花缭乱的色彩组合，很高兴他们现在终于不再受限于木质的色调和塑料时代之前的干巴巴的棕褐色。随后在二十世纪五十年代，它再次失宠了，它被轻视并且被大量销毁。然而近来随着收藏市场对原始电木物品更新的需求，随着博物馆、上流社会及热衷于此的个人再次欣赏这种革新材料的风格和创意，电木在经历某种程度的复兴。
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上外08-09综合英语+翻译两科试题
TA的每日心情郁闷 18:30签到天数: 114 天[LV.6]翻译艺术II
2009年上海外国语大学汉英翻译考研试题) G. h, F& y$ E3 G' Q$ {) ]
今年英语 汉英翻译 是 杨绛的《窗帘》
作者：杨绛% p0 d6 R- k& e
　　人不怕挤。尽管摩肩接踵，大家也挤不到一处。像壳里的仁，各自各。像太阳光里飞舞的轻尘，各自各。凭你多热闹的地方，窗对着窗。各自人家，彼此不相干。只要挂上一个窗帘，只要拉过那薄薄一层，便把别人家隔离在千万里以外了。 2 Z4 X( C% U* y, a( a
　　隔离，不是断绝。窗帘并不堵没窗户，只在彼此间增加些距离——欺哄人招引人的距离。窗帘并不盖没窗户，只隐约遮掩——多么引诱挑逗的遮掩！所以，赤裸裸的窗口不引人注意，而一角掀动的窗帘，惹人窥探猜测，生出无限兴趣。 2 }/ ^6 g' i2 z2 c* \- d
　　赤裸裸，可以表示天真朴素。不过，如把天真朴素做了窗帘的质料，做了窗帘的颜色，一个洁白素净的帘子，堆叠着透明的软纱，在风里飘曳，这种朴素，只怕比五颜六色更富有魅力，认真要赤裸裸不加遮饰，除非有希腊神像那样完美的身体，有天使般纯洁的灵魂。倍根（Bacon）说过：“赤裸裸是不体面的；不论是赤露的身体，或赤露的心。”人从乐园里驱逐出来的时候，已经体味到这句话了。 1 V4 _) U$ q8 ?' S) i) T
　　所以赤裸裸的真实总需要些掩饰。白昼的阳光，无情地照彻了人间万物，不能留下些幽暗让人迷惑，让人梦想，让人希望。如果没有轻云薄雾把日光筛漏出五色霞彩来，天空该多么单调枯燥！
　　隐约模糊中，才容许你做梦和想象。距离增添了神秘。看不见边际，变为没边没际的遥远与辽阔。云雾中的山水，暗夜的星辰，希望中的未来，高超的理想，仰慕的名人，心许的“相知”，——隔着窗帘，惝怳迷离，可以产生无限美妙的想象。如果你嫌恶窗帘的间隔，冒冒失失闯进门、闯到窗帘后面去看个究竟，赤裸裸的真实只怕并不经看。像丁尼生（Tennyson）诗里的“夏洛特女郎”（TheLady of Shalott），看厌了镜中反映的世界，三步跑到窗前，望一望真实世界。她的镜子立即破裂成两半，她毁灭了以前快乐而无知的自己。
　　人家挂着窗帘呢，别去窥望。宁可自己也挂上一个，华丽的也好，朴素的也好。如果你不屑挂，或懒得挂，不妨就敞着个赤裸裸的窗口。不过，你总得尊重别人家的窗帘。
2008年上海外国语大学英语专业考研试题　
I.&&CLOZE&&(30&&points)
Fill in each of the blanks below with a word provided in the brackets. You may change the words into their proper forms if needed so that the words you put in will be grammatically and semantically appropriate. You can Only use the words in the brackets ONCE. Write your answers oh your Answer Sheet.
(cherish& && &&&reach& &&&receive& && && &rub& && &&&beam& &&&curious& && && &history& && && & overcome& &&&extend8 O' ]8 i&&C8 [, I9 |&&G
kinship& && && & break& & intimate origin& &&&enthusiastic& &barbaric&&insulting& && &eyes& && &ceremony
execute& && && & unwashed& & pertinent& & sanity& & substitute& & relief& &worse& & partake& & custom& && && & 0 r2 w# z+ M: @7 J9 n9 i% \8 Z; h
advertisement& &&&alternative& &&&spring)* y# ?) D" ?3 m7 G&&u' o: k
At the White House on New Year's Day, 1907, Theodore Roosevelt set a world record for shaking hands—8,150 of them, according to his biographer Edmund Morris, including those of &every aide, usher and policeman in sight.& Having done his exuberant political duty, says Morris, Teddy went upstairs and privately, disgustedly, scrubbed himself clean.' b- S4 q' U( P% H4 g! o3 V
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We may presume that on Inauguration Day in January 2001, President Trump will not try to (1) _______ Roosevelt's record. Trump' &1 think the handshake is (2)_______ Shaking hands, you catch the flu, you catch this, you catch all sorts of things.&
Donald Trump may be right. The more you think about it, the more disgusting the handshake becomes. Although it is a public gesture, a reflexive (3) _______& &&&of greeting, the handshake has a clammy dimension of (4) _______. The clamminess is illustrated in principle by the following: a young (5) _______&&rushed up to James Joyce and asked, &May 1 kiss the hand that wrote Ulysses?” Joyce replied, &No. It did lots of other things, too.&
Most of us don't think about it. The handshake is expected and is (6) _______ automatically in a ritual little babble of nicetomeetyouhowdoyoudo? If you had an attack of fastidiousness and refused to shake someone's (7) _______ hand, then the handshake would become an awkwardness and an issue, a refusal being an outright (8)________.# o8 c! z, W. j6 }4 r$ [0 f
Now that he is almost a candidate, how is the fussy, hygienic Donald to keep his (9) ______ in an election year's orgies of grip-and-grin? Mingling with the (10) ________, he will presumably shake tens of thousands of germy hands. The most graceful (11) ________--- The Hindu namaste (slight bow, hands clasped near the heart as in prayer) --- would not play well in American politics. One (12) ______& &&&might be to shake your own hand, brandishing the two-handed clutch in front of your face like a champ while looking the voter in the (13) _______. No. Too much self-congratulation. A politician mustn't (14) _______ his narcissism.&&q: T3 ?, Z2 o' k& Y: q
Best not to think about it. Television has taken so much of the physicality — the sheer touch—out of politics that we should (15) _______ the vestigial handshake, the last, fleeting, primitive human contact, flesh to flesh, sweat to sweat, pulse to pulse. A true politician loves shaking hands. ' j9 C; H0 m6 t
II.& &PROOF-READING & ERROR CORRECTION& &&&(20& &points)
The following passage contains TEN errors. Each indicated line contains a maximum of ONE error. In each case, only ONE word is involved. You should proofread the passage and correct it in the following way:& x" x7 f7 A4 Y) c! v1 o1 E&&X. I
( a0 @( T) C) _* Z3 |% Y( S
% K+ `* `4 Q- h&&g9 ^
When ∧ art museum wants a new exhibit,& && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && &(1)& & an__1 D% I. n" a* C$ _& x7 E/ u) _
it never buys things in finished form and hangs& && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && & (2) _never_3 `6 L' ~1 x2 [% P* K; c
them on the wall. When a natural history
museum wants an exhibition, it must often& && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && &(3)&&exhibit1 U9 X- e+ k&&}, y&&S, T* K
build it.+ S8 x7 o# z0 ~# Q: L$ t4 V
Not too many decades ago it seemed &obvious& both to the6 b* ]+ N& g- Q( l" G- I
general public and to sociologists that modern society has7 Y% i$ h1 j. `7 t0 n- a
changed people's natural relations, loosed their responsibilities& && && && && && && && && && && && && &(1)_______
to kins and neighbors, and substituted in their place& && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && &(2)_______
for superficial relationships with passing acquaintances.& && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && &(3)_______
However, in recent years a growing body of research has
revealed that the &obvious& is not true. It seems that if you are
a city resident, you typically know a smaller proportion of your
neighbors than you if you are a resident of a smaller community.& && && && && && && && && && && && & (4) _______2 j1 I0 u8 p* N" E6 f4 R! x. Y
But, for the most part, this fact has a few significant& && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && & (5) _______* K; Q+ l" G9 N4 ~
consequences. It does not necessarily follow that if you know few
of your neighbors you will know no one else.
Even in very large cities, people maintain close social ties within 2 P; G, T0 s4 U# Z8 f3 g, G
small, private social, worlds. Indeed, the number and quality of
meaningful relationships do not differ from more and less& && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && &(6) _______
urban people. Small-town residents are more involved with kin , h" }( [6 k2 o2 d' L$ J
than do big-city residents. Yet city dwellers compensate by& && && && && && && && && && && && && && && & (7) _______
developing friendships with people who share similar interests 6 e7 r& t( w* f
and activities. Urbanism may produce a different style of life, ! m0 F" }: P9 I9 T1 ~' V8 x1 |* ~
but the quality of life does not differ between town and city. Or& && && && && && && && && && && && && &&&(8) _______
are residents of large communities any likely to display& && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && && & (9) _______
psychological symptoms of stress or alienation than are
residents of smaller communities. However, city dwellers do
worry more about crime, and which leads them to a distrust of& && && && && && && && && && && && && &&&(10) ______; j8 F5 T( g% P, B7 A: x
strangers.
<font color="#ff年 英语语言文学 英语综合 改错
A fairly standard consensual definition is &a relatively permanent change in behavior (sic.; it's American of course) that results from practise.& This is of course arguable, particularly the &practice& criterion. Others would accept changes in &capability& or even simple &knowledge& or &understanding&, even if it is not manifest in behaviour. It is however an important criterion that &learned& behaviour is not pre-programmed or wholly instinctive (not a word used much nowadays), even if an instinctual drive underpins it. Behaviour can also change as a result of maturation-simple growing-up-without being totally learned. Think of the changing attitude of children and adolescents to opposite-sex peers. Whatever the case, there has to be interaction with the environment.; Z. k, P/ B. e& ^! R$ P
Even if psychologists ever agree about what learning is, in practice educationalists won't, because education introduces prescriptive notions about specifying what ought to be learnt, and there is considerable dispute about whether this ought only to be what the teacher wants the learner to learn (implicit in behavioural models), or what the learner wants to learn (as in humanistic models)." N7 x7 V" D- Z
2009英语语言文学 完形填空 全文# q) {# C; [2 [! l8 ?
Obtaining Linguistic Data; o( m! T) X2 G2 j7 V
Many procedures are available for obtaining data about a language. They range from a carefully planned, intensive field investigation in a foreign country to a casual introspection about one's mother tongue carried out in an armchair at home.6 T# M% f&&H" m6 U; |+ G6 i
In all cases, someone has to act as a source of language data - an informant. Informants are(ideally) native speakers of a language, who provide utterances for analysis and other kinds of information about the language(e.g. translations, comments about correctness, or judgements on usage). Often, when studying their mother tongue, linguists act as their own informants, judging the ambiguity, acceptability, or other properties of utterances against their own intuitions. The convenience of this approach makes it widely used, and it is considered the norm in the generative approach to linguistics. But a linguist's personal judgements are often uncertain, or disagree with the judgements of other linguists, at which point recourse is needed to more objective methods of enquiry, using non-linguists as informants. The latter procedure is unavoidable when working on foreign languages, or child speech.
Many&&factors must be considered when selecting informants - whether one is working with single speakers(a common situation when languages have not been described before), two people interacting, small groups or large-scale samples. Age, sex, social background and other aspects of identity are important, as these factors are known to influence the kind of language used. The topic of conversation and the characteristics of the social setting(e.g. the level of formality) are also highly relevant, as are the personal qualities of the informants(e.g. their fluency and consistency). For larger studies, scrupulous attention has been paid to the sampling theory employed, and in all cases, decisions have to be made about the best investigative techniques to use.. u: u. S; P% s&&o5 N
Today, researchers often tape-record informants. This enables the linguist's claims about the language to be checked, and provides a way of making those claims more accurate('difficult' pieces of speech can be listened to repeatedly). But obtaining naturalistic, good-quality data is never easy. People talk abnormally when they know they are being recorded, and sound quality can be poor. A variety of tape-recording procedures have thus been devised to minimise the 'observer's paradox'(how to observe the way people behave when they are not bening observed). Some recordings are made without the speaker being aware of the fact - a procedure that obtains very natural data, though ethical objections must be anticipated. Alternatively, attempts can be made to make the speaker forget about the recording, such as keeping the tape recorder out of sight, or using radio microphones. A useful technique is to introduce a topic that quickly involves the speaker, and stimulates a natural language style(e.g. asking older informants about how times have changed in their locality).' N/ t$ J1 t% |0 P
An audio tape recording does not solve all the linguist's problems, however. Speech is often&&unclear and ambiguous. Where possible , therefore, the recording has to be supplemented by the observer's written comments on the non-verbal behaviour of the participants, and about the context in general. A facial expression, for example, can dramatically alter the meaning of what is said. Video recordings avoid these problems to a large extent, but even they have limitations(the camera connot be everywhere), and transcriptions always benefit from any additional commentary provided by an observer.
Linguists also make great use of structured sessions, in which they systematically ask their informants for utterances that describe certain actions, objects or behaviour. With a bilingual informant, or through use of an interpreter, it is possible to use translation techniques('How do you say table in your language?'). A large number of points can be covered in a short time, using interview worksheets and questionnaires. Often, the researcher wishes to obtain information about just a single variable, in which case a restricted set of questions may be used: a particular feature of pronunciation, for example, can be elicited by asking the informant to say a restricted set of words. There are also several direct methods of elicitation, such as asking informants to fill in the blanks in a substitution frame(e.g I__see a car), or feeding them the wrong stimulus for correction('Is it possible to say I no can see?').
A representative sample of language, compiled for the purpose of linguistic analysis, is known as a corpus. A corpus enables the linguist to make unbiased statements about frequency of usage, and it provides accessible data for the use of different researchers. Its range and size are variable. Some corpora attempt to cover the language as a whole, taking extracts fro others are extremely selective, providing a collection of material that deals only with a particular linguistic feature. The size of the porpus depends on practical factors, such as the time available to collect, process and store the data: it can take up to several hours to provide an accurate transcription of a few minutes of speech. Sometimes a small sample of data will be enough to decide a l by contrast, corpora in major research projects can total millions of words. An important principle is that all corpora, whatever their size, are inevitably limited in their coverage, and always need to be supplemented by data derived from the intuitions of native speakers of the language, through either introspection or experimentation.
2009英语语言文学 英语综合 阅读理解Passage 1
BAKELITE" o4 E2 t1 ^* p0 z/ y! B" {
The birth of modern plastics4 a& [- z1 ~0 p% a( k! {; o
In 1907, Leo Hendrick Baekeland, a Belgian scientist working in New York, discovered and patented a revolutionary new synthetic material. His invention, which he named 'Bakelite', was of enormous technological importance, and effectively launched the modern plastics industry.& \6 Y/ }/ s: W; X0 Z! k7 M" d
The term 'plastic' comes from the Greek plassein, meaning 'to mould'. Some plastics are derived from natural sources, some are semi-synthetic (the result of chemical action on a natural substance), and some are entirely synthetic, that is, chemically engineered from the constituents of coal or oil. Some are 'thermoplastic', which means that, like candlewax, they melt when heated and can then be reshaped. Others are 'thermosetting': like eggs, they cannot revert to their original viscous state, and their shape is thus fixed for ever., Bakelite had the distinction of being the first totally synthetic thermosetting plastic.
The history of today's plastics begins with the discovery of a series of semi-synthetic thermoplastic materials in the mid-nineteenth century. The impetus behind the development of these early plastics was generated by a number of factors - immense technological progress in the domain of chemistry, coupled with wider cultural changes, and the pragmatic need to find acceptable substitutes for dwindling supplies of 'luxury' materials such as tortoiseshell and ivory.5 W/ g" i9 X$ \* b
Baekeland's interest in plastics began in 1885 when, as a young chemistry student in Belgium, he embarked on research into phenolic resins, the group of sticky substances produced when phenol (carbolic acid) combines with an aldehyde (a volatile fluid similar to alcohol). He soon abandoned the subject, however, only returning to it some years later. By 1905 he was a wealthy New Yorker, having recently made his fortune with the invention of a new photographic paper. While Baekeland had been busily amassing dollars, some advances had been made in the development of plastics. The years 1899 and 1900 had seen the patenting of the first semi-synthetic thermosetting material that could be manufactured on an industrial scale. In purely scientific terms, Baekeland's major contribution to the field is not so much the actual discovery of the material to which he gave his name, but rather the method by which a reaction between phenol and formaldehyde could be controlled, thus making possible its preparation on a commercial basis. On 13 July 1907, Baekeland took out his famous patent describing this preparation, the essential features of which are still in use today.
The original patent outlined a three-stage process, in which phenol and formaldehyde (from wood or coal) were initially combined under vacuum inside a large egg-shaped kettle. The result was a resin known as Novalak, which became soluble and malleable when heated. The resin was allowed to cool in shallow trays until it hardened, and then broken up and ground into powder. Other substances were then introduced: including fillers, such as woodflour, asbestos or cotton, which increase strength and. moisture resistance, catalysts (substances to speed up the reaction between two chemicals without joining to either) and hexa, a compound of ammonia and formaldehyde which supplied the additional formaldehyde necessary to form a thermosetting resin. This resin was then left to cool and harden, and ground up a second time. The resulting granular powder was raw Bakelite, ready to be made into a vast range of manufactured objects. In the last stage, the heated Bakelite was poured into a hollow mould of the required shape and subjected to extre thereby 'setting' its form for life.
The design of Bakelite objects, everything from earrings to television sets, was governed to a large extent by the technical requirements of the moulding process. The object could not be designed so that it was locked into the mould and therefore difficult to extract. A common general rule was that objects should taper towards the deepest part of the mould, and if necessary the product was moulded in separate pieces. Moulds had to be carefully designed so that the molten Bakelite would flow evenly and completely into the mould. Sharp corners proved impractical and were thus avoided, giving rise to the smooth, 'streamlined' style popular in the 1930s. The thickness of the walls of the mould was also crucial: thick walls took longer to cool and harden, a factor which had to be considered by the designer in order to make the most efficient use of machines.
Baekeland's invention, although treated with disdain in its early years, went on to enjoy an unparalleled popularity which lasted throughout the first half of the twentieth century. It became the wonder product of the new world of industrial expansion -'the material of a thousand uses'. Being both non-porous and heat-resistant, Bakelite kitchen goods were promoted as being germ-free and sterilisable. Electrical manufacturers seized on its insulating: properties, and consumers everywhere relished its dazzling array of shades, delighted that they were now, at last, no longer restricted to the wood tones and drab browns of the prepfastic era. It then fell from favour again during the 1950s, and was despised and destroyed in vast quantities. Recently, however, it has been experiencing something of a renaissance, with renewed demand for original Bakelite objects in the collectors' marketplace, and museums, societies and dedicated individuals once again appreciating the style and originality of this innovative material.
2009英语语言文学 英语综合 阅读理解 Passage 2* y# s% z4 h) L4 K& H9 C
Nature or Nurture?
A few years ago, in one of the most fascinating and disturbing experiments in behavioural psychology, Stanley Milgram of Yale University tested 40 subjects from all walks of life for their willingness to obey instructions given by a 'leader' in a situation in which the subjects might feel a personal distaste for the actions they were called upon to perform. Specifically, Milgram told each volunteer 'teacher-subject' that the experiment was in the noble cause of education, and was designed to test whether or not punishing pupils for their mistakes would have a positive effect on the pupils' ability to learn. + @& t& r$ j1 W" }
Milgram's experimental set-up involved placing the teacher-subject before a panel of thirty switches with labels ranging from '15 vols of electricity (slight shock)' to '450 volts (danger - severe shock)' in steps of 15 volts each. The teacher-subject was told that whenever the pupil gave the wrong answer to a question, a shock was to be administered, beginning at the lowest level and increasing in severity with each successive wrong answer. The supposed 'pupil' was in reality an actor hired by Milgram to simulate receiving the shocks by emitting a spectrum of groans, screams and writhings together with an assortment of statements and expletives denouncing both the experiment and the experimenter. Milgram told the teacher-subject to ignore the reactions of the pupil, and to administer whatever level of shock was called for, as per the rule governing the experimental situation of the moment.
As the experiment unfolded, the pupil would deliberately give the wrong answers to questions posed by the teacher, thereby bringing on various electrical punishments, even up to the danger level of 300 volts and beyond. Many of the teacher-subjects balked at administering the higher levels of punishment, and turned to Milgram with questioning looks and/or complaints about continuing the experiment. In these situations, Milgram calmly explained that the teacher-subject was to ignore the pupil's cries for mercy and carry on with the experiment. If the subject was still reluctant to proceed, Milgram said that it was important for the sake of the experiment that the procedure be followed through to the end. His final argument was, 'You have no other choice. You must go on.' What Milgram was trying to discover was the number of teacher-subjects who would be willing to administer the highest levels of shock, even in the face of strong personal and moral revulsion against the rules and conditions of the experiment. 3 c9 ?; X1 q1 K2 C$ g* j0 d
Prior to carrying out the experiment, Milgram explained his idea to a group of 39 psychiatrists and asked them to predict the average percentage of people in an ordinary population who would be willing to administer the highest shock level of 450 volts. The overwhelming consensus was that virtually all the teacher-subjects would refuse to obey the experimenter. They psychiatrists felt that 'most subjects would not go beyond 150 volts' and they further anticipated that only four per cent would go up to 300 volts. Furthermore, they thought that only a lunatic fringe of about one in 1,000 would give the highest shock of 450 volts. 0 c1 F* E. \3 j
What were the actuatl results? Well, over 60 per cent of the teacher-subjects continued to obey Milgram up to the 450-volt limit! In repetitions of the experiment in other countries, the percentage of obedient teacher-subjects was even higher, reaching 85 per cent in one country. How can we possible account for this vast discrepancey between what calm, rational, knowledgeable people predict in the comfort of their study and what pressured, flustered, but cooperative 'teachers' actually do in the laboratory of real life? 2 c% a- I* e/ Z: b8 e: l
One's first inclination might be to argue that there must be some sort of built-in animal aggression instinct that was activated by the experimental, and the Milgram's teacher-subjects were just following a genetic need to discharge this pent-up primal urge onto the pupil by administering the electrical shosck. A modern hard-core sociobiologist might even go so far as to claim that this aggressive instinct evolved as an advantageous trait, having been of survival value to our ancestors in their struggle against the hardships of life on the plains and in the caves, ultimately finding its way into our genetic make-up as a remnant of our ancient animal ways.
An alternative to this notion of genetic programming is to see the teacher-subjects' actions as a result of the social environment under which the experiment was carried out. As Milgram himself pointed out, 'Most subjects in the experiment see their behaviour in a larger context that is benevolent and useful to society - the pursuit of scientific truth. The psychological laboratory has a strong claim to legitimacy and evokes trust and confidence in those who perform there. An action such as shocking a victim, which in isolation apears evil, acquires a completely different meaning when placed in this setting'. ' [* k2 Y/ \8 p. ]* `- H% Y7 I) S
Thus, in this explanation the subject merges his unique personality and personal and moral code with that of larger institutional structures, surrendering individual properties like loyalty, self-sacrifice and discipline to the service of malevolent systems of authority. 9 V' h9 S) _, O: l3 D5 k
Here we have two radically different explanations for why so many teacher-subjects were willing to forgot their sense of personal responsibility for the sake of an institutional authority figure. The problem for biologists, psychologists and anthropologists is to sort out which of these two polar explanations is more plausible. This, in essence, is the problem of modern sociobiology - to discover the degree to which hard-wired genetic programming dictates, or at least strongly biases, the interaction of animals and humans with their environment, that is, their behaviour. Put another way, sociobiology is concerned with elucidating the biological basis of all behaviour., B' x2 ?&&S) _7 b
Which paragraph contains the following information?
1&&a biological explanation of the teacher-subjects' behaviour
2&&the explanation Milgram gave the teacher-subjects for the experiment/ `4 i( e, b9 E
3&&the identity of the pupils
4&&the expected statistical outcome: g" {6 P6 {/ H3 }7 V; y4 T
5&&the general aim of sociobiologial study: u& L$ S% p
6&&the way Milgram persuaded the teacher-subjects to continue
&&- W8 G& u6 B! Z: f2 l* I$ K
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.7 q! L: v# A9 l0 U$ z/ x
7 The teacher-subjects were told that they were testing whether " `0 ~* W1 G2 R; I
(A) a 450-volt shock was dangerous) v0 Y6 t% M0 u# r+ V
(B) punishment helps learning/ R6 |- B' }. ?) g& f8 [- M+ x
(C) the pupils were honest
(D) they were stuited to teaching3 c, d5 P; r& x/ e( i2 N
8 The teacher-subjects were instructed to
(A) stop when a pupil asked them to
(B) denounce pupils who made mistakes: s& H+ f- L! }+ z. ?) w. [
(C) reduce the shock level after a correct answer5 q5 e9 R&&a% O6 t3 m6 g" e
(D) give punishment according to a rule
9 Before the experiment took place the psychiatrists! Q- y& Q0 |8 {# m&&D8 z
(A) believed that a shock of 150 volts was too dangerous
(B) failed to agree on how the teacher-subjects would respond to instructions5 U# }' v) V; |6 S6 s
(C) underestimated the teacher-subjects' willingness to comply with experimental procedure
(D) thought that many of the teacher-subjects would administer a shock of 450 volts, R' e+ z0 k9 s: v* O
2009英语语言文学 英语综合 阅读理解 Passage 3
The Truth about the Environment ' m. J9 n" N- B1 S3 {
For many environmentalists, the world seems to be getting worse. They have developed a hit-list of our main fears: that natural resou that the population is ever growing, leaving
that species are becoming extinct in vast numbers, and that the planet's air and water are becoming ever more polluted.
But a quick look at the facts shows a different picture. First, energy and other natural resources have become more abundant, not less so, since the book 'The Limits to Growth' was published in 1972 by a group of scientists. Second, more food is now produced per head of the world's population than at any time in history. Fewer people are starving. Third, although species are indeed becoming extinct, only about 0.7% of them are expected to disappear in the next 50 years, not 25-50%, as has so often been predicted. And finally, most forms of environmental pollution either appear to have been exggerated, or are transient - associated with the early phases of industrialisation and therefore best cured not by restricting economic growth, but by accelerating it. One form of pollution - the release of greenhouse gases that causes global warming - does appear to be a phenomenon that is going to extend well into our future, but its total impact is unlikely to pose a devastating problem. A bigger problem may well turn out to be an inappropriate response to it. ( t+ e% `5 |! q" w2 z5 d6 W
Yet opinion polls suggest that many people nurture the belief that environmental standards are declining and four factors seem to cause this disjunction between perception and reality.
One is the lopsidedness built into scientific research. Scientific funcing goes mainly to areas with many problems. That may be wise policy, but it will also create an impression that many more potential problems exist than is the case.
Secondly, environmental groups need to be noticed by the mass media. They also need to keep the money rolling in. Understandably, perhaps, they sometimes overstate their arguments. In 1997, for example, the World Wide Fund for Nature issued a press release entitled: 'Two thirds of the world's forests lost forever'. The truth turns out to be nearer 20%.
Though these groups are run overwhelmingly by selfless folk, they nevertheless share many of the characteristics of other lobby groups. That would matter less if people applied the same degree of scepticism to environmental lobbying as tehy do to lobby groups in other fields. A trade organisation arguing for, say, weaker pollution controls is instantly seen as self-interested. Yet a green organisation opposing such a weakening is seen as altruistic, even if an impartial view of the controls in question might suggest they are doing more harm than good.
A third source of confusion is the attitude of the media. People are clearly more cuirous about bad news than good. Newspapers and broadcasters are there to provide what the public wants. That, however, can lead to significant distortions of perception. An example was America's encounter El Nino in 1997 and 1998. This climatic phenomenon was accused of wrecking tourism, causing allergies, melting the ski-slopes and causing 22 deaths. However, according to an artical in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, the damage it did was estimated at US$4 billing but the benefits amounted to some US$19 billion. These came fromhigher winter temperatures (which saved an estimated 850 lives, reduced heating costs and diminished spring floods caused by meltwaters).
The fourth factor is poor individual perception. People worry that the endless rise in the amount of stuff everyone throws away will cause the world to run out of places to dispose of waste. Yet, even if America's trash output continues to rise as it has done in the past, and even if the American population doubles by 2100, all the rubbish America produces through the entire 21st centurey will still take up only on 12,000th of the area of the entire United States.
So what of global warming? As we know, carbon dioxide emissions are causing the planet to warm. The best estimates are that the temperatures will rise by 2-3°C in this century, causing considerable problems, at a total cost of US$5,000 billion.
Despite the intuition that something drastic needs to be done about such a costly problem, economic analyses clearly show it will be far more expensive to cut carbon dioxide emissions radically than to pay the costs of adaptation ot the increased temperatures. A model by one of the main authors of the United Nations Climate Change Panel shows how an expected temperature increase of 2.1 degrees in 2100 would only be diminished to an increase of 1.9 degrees. Or to put it another way, the temperature increase that the planet would have experienced in 2094 would be postponed to 2100.
So this does not prevent global warming, but merely buys the world six years. Yet the cost of reducing carbon dioxide emissions, for the United States alone, will be higher than the cost of solving the wolrd's single, most pressing health problem: providing universal access to clean drinking water and sanitation. Such measures would avoid 2 million deaths every year, and prevent half a billion people from becoming seriously ill.
It is crucial that we look at the facts if we want to make the best possible decisions for the future. It may be costly to be overly optimistic - but more costly still to be too pessimistic.
33 What aspect of scientific research does the writer express concern about in paragraph 4? & j: O0 h. l0 g. d. ?&&w
(A) the need to produce results
(B) the lack of financial support
(C) the selection of areas to research
(D) the desire to solve every research problem( l, A( ?' w$ U: G8 r
34 The writer quotes from the Worldwide Fund for Nature to illustrate how 2 y) i% z' K; W7 r4 \: A, Q9 A1 U8 |( D
(A) influential the mass media can be
(B) effective environmental groups can be&&`! E&&L$ Z$ `/ ]* V! q* c
(C) the mass media can help groups raise funds
(D) environmental groups can exaggerate their claims
35 What is the writer's main point about lobby groups in paragraph 6?&&- q1 ^2 w! j" [- Y2 l
(A) some are more active than others
(B) some are better organised than others* X9 }5 i: b- p7 R9 {8 E/ T, M
(C) some receive more criticism than others! ~3 o1 l/ k, s2 |" |: k&&R7 G0 Q
(D) some support more important issues than others
36 The writer suggests that newspapers print items that are intended to
(A) educate readers
(B) meet their readers' expectations& [6 \9 j6 w&&e
(C) encourage feedback from readers2 T* I) _& E% J* {- `&&Y
(D) mislead readers/ c( D8 ~; |- g- m7 v$ q
37 What does the writer say about America's waste problem?&&
(A) it will increase in line with population growth
(B) it is not as important as we have been led to believe
(C) it has been reduced through public awareness of the issues: ~* r4 E) D9 g8 X
(D) it is only significant in certain areas of the country$ x0 p# m" I6 I8 H# t& l- j9 h* C
! T+ w( Y' k' o* r% Z9 f
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