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n. (Cajal)人名；(罗)卡扎尔
Cajal is a tiny lunar impact crater on the northern part of the Mare Tranquilitatis, in memory of the Spanish doctor and nobel prizes Santiago Ramón y Cajal. It is a circular, cup-shaped formation that lies to the southeast of the lava-inundated crater Jansen.
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It was perhaps because of this isolation that Cajal was not influenced by the ideas of other investigators.
也许正是因为这种隔绝，卡哈尔可以不受到其他研究观点的影响。
That has been the goal for 125 years, since the Spanish scientist Santiago Ramón y Cajal began using a stain that marked individual neurons.
为此，人类已经探索了125年，西班牙科学家圣地亚哥o卡哈尔(Santiago Ramon y Cajal)首次开始使用染色剂显示单个神经元。
This led Cajal to formulate the law of dynamic polarization, according to which information flows in one direction through a neuron, from the dendrites, through the cell body, to the axon.
这导致了卡哈尔建立他的动态极化法则，这个法则表明，信息在神经元上是单向传递，从树突，经过胞体，到达轴突。
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感谢您的反馈，我们会尽快进行适当修改！& & 大约在20世纪之交，一位名为Santiago Ram&n y Cajal的西班牙科学家画出了错综复杂的神经元交织在一起的图像，而这些手绘改变了大脑科学。他精湛的绘图帮助科学家了解关于大脑的基础事实，即拥有长长&手臂&的神经元是我们神经系……
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相关经验教程神经元和神经胶质细胞－图片图谱
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神经元和神经胶质细胞
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NEURONS AND NEUROGLIA
Two differentiated cell types comprise or make up neural tissue.& They are nerve cells (neurons) and neuroglial (glia) cells . Both are considered below, starting with neurons. The notion that the nervous system is made up of individual cells, rather than being a syncytium, is attributed to Santiago Ramon y Cajal.
Heinrich Waldeyer first used the term 'neuron' about 1891.
neurons have several parts:i.&& cell body (soma, perikaryon)-contains the nucleus and many of the cell's organelles for synthesis of macromolecules.ii.& dendrite(s)-usually several come off/attach&to the somaiii. axon-usually only one comes off the soma, but it may have branches (collaterals) distally
The pictures demonstrate light& and electron& micrographs of multipolar neurons.On the far right the photomicrograph& emphasizes the several processes that come off the cell body of a neuron, which is in the center of the picture.The light micrograph at the left shows the typical appearance of multipolar neuronal cell bodies when stained with basic dyes.& T often a heavily stained nucleolus is evident within it.& Nissl bodies are prominent in the cytoplasm of the soma and proximal parts of dendrites.
The electron micrograph shows part of the cell body and a dendrite of a motor neuron.& Part of the nucleus is at center- the dendrite is at lower-right.Stacks of rough endoplasmic reticulum are evident in the cytoplasm. They are what constitute Nissl bodies at the light microscopic level.This neuron was labeled with a marker using the technique of retrograde axonal transport .& The location of that marker is represented by the black granules, many of which localize in the vicinity of the Golgi apparatus.
If one classifies neurons on the basis of the number of processes extending from the cell body, then there are two other types of neuron.& They are bipolar and unipolar (formerly called pseudounipolar).& Both tend to be round or oval in shape when seen in sections.
Cell bodies of unipolar neurons form spinal ganglia, most cranial nerve sensory ganglia, and the trigeminal mesencephalic nucleus.A light micrograph of unipolar neurons in a spinal ganglion is shown at right. A darkly-stained nucleolus is evident within the nucleus of at least a dozen of the neurons.& Each of the neuronal cell bodies is surrounded by lots of cells whose nuclei stain darkly.
Bipolar neurons are less common.& Their cell bodies are located in the retina, the olfactory epithelium, and the cochlear and vestibular ganglia.An electron micrograph of a bipolar neuron from a vestibular ganglion is shown.& A dark nucleolus is present in the nucleus of the neuron and clumps of rough endoplasmic reticulum are faintly visible in the cytoplasm.The cytoplasm of a satellite cell immediately surroun its nucleus is at about a 9 o'clock position at the neuron's perimeter.& A few myelinated fibers are also present in the picture.
Virtually all other neurons in the mammalian nervous system are multipolar.& But multipolar neurons have a diversity of shapes.& Some shapes are so characteristic that those cells are specially named. Examples are:i.&&&& Purkinje cell - single layer of large cell bodies in the cerebellar cortex, between the molecular (left) and granular (right) layers.ii.&&& pyramidal cell - named on the basis of the cell body's shape. It is one of the two major neuronal types in the cerebral cortex.& It has a large apical dendrite, which& extends vertically from the top of the pyramid, and basal dendrites, which come off horizontally at the base of the pyramid. The axon also typically extends from the base.iii.&& granule cell of dentate gyrus in the hippocampus (a particular region of the cerebral cortex) - dendrites extend from one end of the cell while the axon comes off from the other.iv.&&motor neuron (motoneuron) -lamina IX of the spinal cord and certain cranial nerve motor nuclei.
i. Purkinje
ii. pyramidal
iii. granule
iv. motor neuron
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>> Cell：全新精细成像，重建大脑皮层
Cell：全新精细成像，重建大脑皮层
来源：生物谷
图：两个相邻神经元（绿色，蓝色）的高分辨率图像。黄色：突触。
日 讯 /生物谷BIOON/-- 大约在20世纪之交，一位名为Santiago Ramón y Cajal的西班牙科学家画出了错综复杂的神经元交织在一起的图像，而这些手绘改变了大脑科学。他精湛的绘图帮助科学家了解关于大脑的基础事实，即拥有长长“手臂”的神经元是我们神经系统的基本单位，它们通过突触相互传递信号。
Santiago Ramón y Cajal手绘的神经元图
而现在，一组科学家们创造了一个崭新的、高精细度的神经元成像和分析系统，根据这个系统，他们希望找到一切，从大脑发育到毁灭性精神障碍的解答。这个最新的研究成果发表在最新一期Cell。
波士顿大学医学院解剖学和神经生物学教授Narayanan Kasthuri评价说：“大脑的复杂性比我们想象的要多得多。我们对于神经元的漂亮排序，如何相互连接有一个清晰的想法，但如果你真的看到，你会发现其实不是这样。”
这个系统到底如何运作？成像系统既包含硬件—给大脑样品切片并拍照成像，和软件—分析数据。这个获得专利的硬件，是由Kasthuri教授和哈佛大学的科研人员开发，被称为自动化磁带收集超薄切片机（automated tape collecting ultra-microtome,ATUM）。它使用钻石刀切割染色并已增塑的脑组织样品，切成30纳米厚的切片，然后用电子显微镜收集和拍摄样品，存储数据。
科学家们使用了一种叫做VAST程序，由哈佛大学和麻省理工学院研制合作开发，用于分析数据，在单个突触水平创产生小鼠大脑皮层子体积的饱和重建，其中所有的细胞结构（轴突、树突和神经胶质细胞）和许多亚细胞组分（突触、突触小泡、突触后密度和线粒体）都呈现并逐项列入数据库中。利用这些数据，研究人员研究脑组织的物理特性。例如，通过追踪所有兴奋性轴突的轨迹，并注意到突触和非突触并置和每个树突棘，他们发现物理上距离的接近足以预测突触连接这种说法是错误的。这个研究成果推翻了一个存在很久的假设—“彼得的规则”（Peter's Rule），即如果两个神经元彼此接近，它们很可能会形成突触，使它们能够互相沟通。这个假设似乎是合乎逻辑的，但Kasthuri博士表示，它其实是假的，至少在小鼠大脑的这一接收胡须感官信息的特定皮层。
“两个神经元花了很多时间在一起并不意味着它们建立连接，”Kasthuri说，“这才是我们研究的成年哺乳动物这块大脑皮层的规则。或许也可能大脑的其他部位，或婴儿大脑，或者每个连接到它“邻居”的神经元也遵守这个的规则。这就是为什么我们想要在大脑其他部分和婴儿的大脑中做成像的原因。”
这个在线数据库使得我们得到对于皮层的内在复杂性的一般了解，并方便提供未来更多的数据驱动查询。(生物谷)
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Saturated Reconstruction of a Volume of NeocortexNarayanan Kasthuri, Kenneth Jeffrey Hayworth et al.
SummaryWe describe automated technologies to probe the structure of neural tissue at nanometer resolution and use them to generate a saturated reconstruction of a sub-volume of mouse neocortex in which all cellular objects (axons, dendrites, and glia) and many sub-cellular components (synapses, synaptic vesicles, spines, spine apparati, postsynaptic densities, and mitochondria) are rendered and itemized in a database. We explore these data to study physical properties of brain tissue. For example, by tracing the trajectories of all excitatory axons and noting their juxtapositions, both synaptic and non-synaptic, with every dendritic spine we refute the idea that physical proximity is sufficient to predict synaptic connectivity (the so-called Peters’ rule). This online minable database provides general access to the intrinsic complexity of the neocortex and enables further data-driven inquiries.
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