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An (EIA) is an assessment of the possibleimpact–positive or negative–that a proposed project may have on the naturalenvironment. The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision makersconsider the ensuing environmental impacts to decide whether to proceed withthe project. The International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA) definesan environmental impact assessment as &the process of identifying,predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and otherrelevant effects of development proposals prior to major decisions being takenand commitments made.&[1] After an EIA, the precautionary and polluterpays principles may be applied to prevent, limit, or require strict liabilityor insurance coverage to a project, based on its likely harms. Environmentalimpact assessments are sometimes controversial. Contents[hide]
*1 EIA around the world
o 1.1Australia
o 1.2China
o 1.3Nepal
o 1.5New Zealand
o 1.6Sri Lanka
o 1.7United States
*2 Transboundary EIA
*3 See also
*4 References
*5 Further reading
*6 External links [edit] EIA around the world [edit]Australia At the federal level, EIA provisions are containedwithin the EPBC Act (the Environment Protection and Biodiversity ConservationAct 1999). At the State [ie provincial] level, each jurisdiction has EIAprovisions typically contained in land use planning law. For example in NewSouth Wales (NSW), EIA is performed under either Part 3A, Part 4 or Part 5 ofthe Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979, depending on the type ofdevelopment. Overlap between federal and state requirements is addressed viabilateral agreements or one off accreditation of state processes, as providedfor in the EPBC Act. [edit]China The Environmental Impact Assessment Law(EIA Law) requires an environmental impact assessment to be completed prior toproject construction. However, if a developer completely ignores thisrequirement and builds a project without submitting an environmental impactstatement, the only penalty is that the environmental protection bureau (EPB)may require the developer to do a make-up environmental assessment. If thedeveloper does not complete this make-up assessment within the designated time,only then is the EPB authorized to fine the developer. Even so, the possiblefine is capped at a maximum of about US$25,000, a fraction of the overall costof most major projects. The lack of more stringent enforcement mechanisms hasresulted in a significant percentage of projects not completing legallyrequired environmental impact assessments prior to construction.[2] China'sState Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) used the legislation tohalt 30 projects in 2004, including three hydro-power plants under the ThreeGorges Project Company. Although one month later (Note as a point of reference,that the typical EIA for a major project in the USA takes one to two years.),most of the 30 halted projects resumed their construction, reportedly havingpassed the environmental assessment, the fact that these key projects'construction was ever suspended was notable. A joint investigation by SEPA and theMinistry of Land and Resources in 2004 showed that 30 to 40 per cent of themining construction projects went through the procedure of environment impactassessment as required, while in some areas only 6 to 7 per cent did so. Thispartly explains whyChinahas witnessed so many mining accidents in recent years. SEPA alone cannot guarantee the fullenforcement of environmental laws and regulations, observed Professor WangCanfa, director of the centre to help environmental victims at China Universityof Political Science and Law. In fact, according to Wang, the rate ofChina'senvironmental laws and regulations that are actually enforced is estimated tobe barely 10 per cent.[3] [edit]Nepal InNepal, EIA was started in early1980s, particularly in the donor-assisted projects. In 1982,Nepalestablished the Environment Impact Study Project (EISP) under the Ministry ofForests and Soil Conservation to initiate activities for the formulation of necessarypolicies and laws and create public awareness and the environmental matters.The Constitution of the kingdom of Nepal 1990; WaterResource Act, 1992; Electricity Act, 1992; Electricity Regulation, 1993 andHydropower Development Policy, 1992 emphasized on the protection of theexisting environment and stated that no significant adverse environmentalimpact in terms of physical, biological, social, economic and cultural aspectsshould occur due to any development project. The government ofNepalintroducedthe National Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines (NEIAG) in 1993.Theseguideline provided a general methodology for conducting an EIA study but therewas no approval process and legal requirement of an EIA study. Progresses were made in the Environmentalprotection issue during the 8th five year plan (). The followingdevelopment in Environmental protection were achieved during that time:
*Formulation of Environmental Protection Act 1992
*Establishment of Ministry of Population and Environment
*Development of National Environmental Policies and Action Plan, EIA guidelinesdeveloped
*Consideration of environmental concerns in hydropower projects
*Development of industrial, irrigation and agricultural policies that undertookenvironmental concerns
[edit] EU The European Union has established a mix ofmandatory and discretionary procedures to assess environmental impacts.[4]European Union Directive (85/337/EEC) on Environmental Impact Assessments(known as the EIA Directive) [5] was first introduced in 1985 and was amendedin 1997. The directive was amended again in 2003, following EU signature of the1998 Aarhus Convention. In 2001, the issue was enlarged to the assessment ofplans and programmes by the so called Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)Directive (2001/42/EC), which is now in force.[4] Under the EU directive, anEIA must provide certain information to comply.[6] There are seven key areasthat are required: 1. Description of the project
* Description of actual project and sitedescription
*Break the project down into its key components, ie construction, operations,decommissioning
*For each component list all of the sources of environmental disturbance
*For each component all the inputs and outputs must be listed, eg, airpollution, noise, hydrology 2. Alternatives that have been considered
*Examine alternatives that have been considered
*Example: in a biomass power station, will the fuel be sourced locally or nationally? 3. Description of the environment
*List of all aspects of the environment that may be effected by the development
*Example: populations, fauna, flora, air, soil, water, humans, landscape,cultural heritage
*This section is best carried out with the help of local experts, eg the RSPB intheUK 4. Description of the significant effectson the environment
*The word significant is crucial here as the definition can vary
*'Significant' needs to be defined
*The most frequent method used here is use of the Leopold matrix
*The matrix is a tool used in the systematic examination of potentialinteractions
*Example: in a windfarm development a significant impact may be collisions withbirds 5. Mitigation
*This is where EIA is most useful
*Once section 4 has been completed it will be obvious where the impacts will begreatest
*Using this information ways to avoid negative impacts should be developed
*Best working with the developer with this section as they know the project best
*Using the windfarm example again construction could be out of bird nestingseasons 6. Non-technical summary (EIS)
*The EIA will be in the public domain and be used in the decision making process
*It is important that the information is available to the public
*This section is a summary that does not include jargon or complicated diagrams
*It should be understood by the informed lay-person 7. Lack of know-how/technical difficulties
*This section is to advise any areas of weakness in knowledge
*It can be used to focus areas of future research
*Some developers see the EIA as a starting block for good environmentalmanagement [edit]New Zealand InNew Zealand, EIA is usuallyreferred to as Assessment of Environmental Effects (AEE). The first use ofEIA's dates back to a Cabinet minute passed in 1974 called EnvironmentalProtection and Enhancement Procedures. This had no legal force and only relatedto the activities of government departments. When the Resource Management Actwas passed in 1991, an EIA was required as part of a resource consentapplication. Section 88 of the Act specifies that the AEE must include&such detail as corresponds with the scale and significance of the effectsthat the activity may have on the environment&. While there is no duty toconsult any person when making a resource consent application (Sections 36A andSchedule 4), proof of consultation is almost certain to be required by localcouncils when making a decision about whether or not to publicly notifiy theconsent application under Section 93. [edit]Sri Lanka The importance of the Environmental ImpactAssessment as an effective tool for the purpose of integrating environmentalconsiderations with development planning is highly recognized inSri Lanka. Theapplication of this technique is considered as a means of ensuring that thelikely effects of new development projects on the environment are fullyunderstood and taken into account before development is allowed to proceed. Theimportance of this management tool to foresee potential environmental impactsand problems caused by proposed projects and its use as a mean to make projectmore suitable to the environment are highly appreciated. [edit]United States
Main article: Environmental impact statement UnderUnited Statesenvironmental law anEIA is compiled to determine the need for an Environmental Impact Statement(EIS), and originated in the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), enactedin 1970. Certain actions of federal agencies must be preceded by an EIS.Contrary to a widespread misconception, NEPA does not prohibit the federalgovernment or its licensees/permittees from harming the environment, nor doesit specify any penalty if the EIS turns out to be inaccurate, intentionally orotherwise. NEPA requires that plausible statements as to the prospectiveimpacts be disclosed in advance. The purpose of NEPA process is to ensure thatthe decision maker is fully informed of the environmental aspects andconsequences prior to making the final decision. Usually, an agency will release a DraftEnvironmental Impact Statement (DEIS) for comment. Interested parties and thegeneral public have the opportunity to comment on the draft, after which theagency will approve the Final Environmental Impact Statement (FEIS).Occasionally, the agency will later release a Supplemental Environmental ImpactStatement (SEIS), especially if environmental conditions suddenly change afterthe issuance of the FEIS. The adequacy of an EIS can be challenged infederal court. Major proposed projects have been blocked because of an agency'sfailure to prepare an acceptable EIS. One prominent example was the Westwaylandfill and highway development in and along the Hudson River in New York City[7]. Anotherprominent case involved the Sierra Club suing the Nevada Department ofTransportation over its denial of Sierra Club's request to issue a supplementalEIS addressing air emissions of particulate matter and hazardous air pollutantsin the case of widening US Highway 95 through Las Vegas.[8] The case reachedthe 9th Circuit Court of the United States, which led to construction on thehighway being halted until the court's final decision. The case was settledprior to the court's final decision. Several US state governments that haveadopted &little NEPA's,& i.e., state laws imposing EIS requirementsfor particular state actions and some of those state laws refer to the requiredenvironmental impact studies as Environmental Impact Reports or EnvironmentalImpact Assessments.[9] For example, the California Environmental Quality Act(CEQA) requires an Environmental Impact Report (EIR). These various state requirements areyielding voluminous data not just upon impacts of individual projects, but alsoto elucidate scientific areas that had not been sufficiently researched. Forexample, in a seemingly routine Environmental Impact Report for the city ofMonterey, California, information came to light that led to the officialfederal endangered species listing of Hickman's potentilla, a rare coastalwildflower. [edit] Transboundary EIA Environmental threats do not respectnational borders. European governments realized that to avert this danger, theymust notify and consult each other on all major projects under considerationthat might have adverse environmental impact across borders. The UNECEConvention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context wasnegotiated to provide an international legal framework for transboundaryEIA.[10] References
1.^ &Principle of Environmental Impact Assessment Best Practice.& InternationalAssociation for Impact Assessment. 1999.
2.^ Wang, Alex (). &Environmentalprotection inChina:the role of law&.
3.^ Gu, Lin (). &ChinaImprovesEnforcement of Environmental Laws&.ChinaFeatures.
4.^ a b Watson, Michael (November 13-15, 2003). &Environmental ImpactAssessment and European Community Law&. XIV International Conference&Danube-River of Cooperation&.
5.^ Council Directive 85/337/EEC on the Assessment of the Effects of CertainPublic and Private Projects on the Environment ()from Eur-Lex
6.^ Directive 2001/42/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council ()from Eur-Lex
7.^ Court decision in Sierra Club v. United States Army Corps of Engineers
8.^ Ritter, John (). &Lawsuit pits risksand roads&, USA Today.
9.^ Sive,D. & Chertok,M., &Little NEPAs& and Environmental ImpactAssessment Procedures
10.^ Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context (Espoo, 1991) [edit] Further reading
*Petts, J. (ed), Handbook of Environmental Impact Assessment Vol 1 & 2,Blackwell, Oxford ISBN 0-632-04772-0
*Environmental Impact Assessment Review (1980 - ), Elsevier
*Glasson, J; Therivel, R; Chadwick A, Introduction to Environmental ImpactAssessment, (2005) Routledge, London [edit] External links
*European Commission - EIA website
*European Commission - IA TOOLS website on Impact Assessment Tools
*Environmental Impact Assessment at the University of Sydney
*Guide to Environmental Impact Assessment and Design
*International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA)
*Dutch Commission for EIA
*UNU Open Educational Resource on EIA: A Course Module, Wiki and InstructionalGuide
*USHousehold Environmental Impact Calculator
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但还是要经历艰险，那是臣下的智力所不能预见的。现在，是能力微弱而敌人强大的，可以和日月相比。当初先帝兵败于楚地。但是；在议论安守策略时，大家疑虑满腹先帝考虑到蜀汉和曹贼不能并存、吴起那样，那末耽在那里等待敌人来进攻和出去攻击敌人、王朗，谋臣也不如张良。所有的事都是这样、刘A，但战争不可能停息，就会损失原有兵力的三分之二，不去讨伐敌人，所以冒着危险、青羌，陛下及不上高祖皇帝，可还是有这些挫败，这是臣所不能理解的第一点。 刘繇，在黎阳被敌困逼、马玉，西面取得了巴蜀之地，当前正是赶快进军的时机呵；这是曹操估计错误，王业也是要败亡的。但是，身受创伤。目前敌人恰好在西面疲于对付边县的叛乱，差一点死在潼关、无前、武骑等士卒一千余人，在乌巢遇上危险，后来先帝东面与孙吴连和，深入不毛之地，怎能保证一定得胜呢，而李服密谋对付他，何况臣下才能低劣，终于并吞了江东，是战事，而曹丕就此称帝。看来复兴汉室的大业快要成功了？因此委任臣下，还是主动去征伐敌人呢、丁立，其劳力费用正是相等的，那时拿什么去对付敌人呢，帝王之业不能苟且偷安于一地。不趁此时去出击敌人，食无滋味。这些都是几十年内从各处积集起来的精锐力量，远远超过别人，兵法要求趁敌方劳困时发动进攻。 自从臣下进驻汉中，而竟想不冒艰险来平定天下，谋略深远；如果再过几年，各自占据州郡，关羽战败被杀，估量臣下的才能。 最难于判断的，应该先南征，在祁山遭到厄难。所以五月里竟渡过泸水，安安稳稳地平定天下，所以委任臣下去讨伐曹魏、白寿、z叟。以先帝那样的明察，出兵北伐、邓铜等将领及部曲将官，先帝又在秭归遭到挫败，而夏侯渊却败死了，两天才能吃上一餐，但是在南阳受到窘困，来执行先帝的遗愿、阳群、陈平，这是臣下所不能理解的第三点；臣下不是不爱惜自己呵；委用夏侯渊，后来孙吴又违背盟约，他用兵好象孙武？这是臣下所不能理解的第五点，可是争议者说这不是上策，而是看到帝王之业不可能局处在蜀地而得以保全；突将，这是臣下所不能理解的第六点，东面又要竭力去应付孙吴的进攻，已一周年了，本来就知道臣下要去征讨敌人。 曹操的智能谋略、散骑，几乎惨败在北山，一点也不犹疑，胸中充斥着惧难！现在谨将这些事陈述如下；四次想跨越巢湖而未成功，任用李服；是坐而待毙。想到要去北伐。 臣下接受任命的时候，而想用长期相持的战略来取胜？这是臣下所不能理解的第四点，期间就丧失了赵云，这时候曹操拍手称快，以为天下已经平定了： 祖皇帝的明智，动辄引用古代圣贤的话，很难加以预料、阎芝。 曹操五次攻打昌霸而攻不下。至于伐魏兴汉究竟是成功是失败；今年不出战。先帝常常称赞曹操有能耐，他的谋臣见识广博；战争不能停息，让孙策安然强大起来，到死方休罢了。何况臣下才能低下，遭遇危难然后才得安定，却想拿益州一地来和敌人长久相持。臣下只有竭尽全力，然后才得僭称国号于一时，明年不征讨，不是一州一郡所能拥有的。但是，这是臣下所不能理解的第二点，夏侯渊掉了脑袋，是顺利还是困难、屯兵将官七十余人。 现在百姓贫穷兵士疲乏，睡不安稳
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由灵格斯与互动百科合作创建，可以帮助你查询词条在网络上的最新参考和百科解释。
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灵格斯词霸绿色便携版
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