TPO 14 Lecture 4 Archeology 　　Narrator:　　Listen to part of the lecture in the archaeology class　　Professor: 　　When we think of large monumental structures built by early societies and Egyptian pyramid probably comes to mind. But there are some even earlier structures in the British Isles also worth discussing, and besides the well-known circle of massive stones of Stonehenge which don't get me wrong is remarkable enough, well, other impressive Neolithic structures are found there too. Oh, yes, we are talking about the Neolithic period here, also called new Stone Age, which was the time before stone tools began to be replaced by tools made by bronze and other metals. 　　It was about 5000 years ago, even before the first Egyptian pyramid that some of amazing Neolithic monuments---tombs, were racketed at the very size around ironed Great Britain and costal islands nearby.　　I am referring particular to structures that in some cases, look like ordinary natural hills. But we definitely build by humans, well-organized communities of human's to enclose a chamber or room within stone walls and sometimes with a high, cleverly designed sealing of overlapping stones. These structures are called Passage Graves, because in the chamber, sometime several chambers in fact, could only be entered from the outside through a narrow passage way.　　Michael:　　Excuse me, professor, but you said Passage Graves. Was this just monument to honor the dead buried there or were they designed to be used somehow by the living?　　Professor: 　　Ah, yes! Good question, Michael. Besides being built as tombs, some of these Passage Graves were definitely what we might call Astronomical Calendars, with chambers they flooded with some light on the certain special days of the year, witch must see miraculous and inspired good dealer of they really just wonder. But research indicates that not just light but also the physics of sound help to enhance this religious experience.　　Michael: 　　How so?　　Professor: 　　Well, first the echoes. When religious leaders started chanting with echoes bounced off the stonewalls over and over again, it must seem like a whole chorus of other voices, spirits of God maybe join in. But even more intriguing is what physicists called Standing Waves. Basically, the phenomenon of Standing Waves occurs when sound waves of the same frequency reflect off the walls and meet from opposite directions. 　　So, the volume seems to alternate between very loud and very soft. You can stand quite near a man singing in loud voice and hardly hear him. Yet step little further away and voice is almost defining. As you move around chamber, the volume of the sound goes way up and way down, depending on where you are and these standing waves. And often the acoustic makes it hard to identify where sounds are coming from. It is powerful voices that are speaking to you or chanting from inside your own head. This had to engender powerful sense of all Neolithic worshipers.　　And another bit of physics I played here is something called Resonance. I know physics, but well I imagine you have all below near of top empty bottles and heard sounds it makes. And you probably notice that depending on its size--- each empty bottle plays one particular music note. Or it is the physics might put it, each bottle resonates at a particular frequency. Well, that's true of these chambers too. If you make a constant noise inside the chamber, maybe by steadily beating drum at certain rate, a particular frequency of sound will resonate. We will ring out intensely, depending on the size of chamber. In some of large chambers though, these intensified sound may be too deep for us to hear, we can feel it. We are mysteriously agitated by a….but it is not a sound our ears can hear. The psychological effects of all these extraordinary sounds can be profound, especially when they seem so disconnected from human doing drumming or chanting. And there can be observable physical effects on people too. In fact, the sounds can cause headaches, feelings of dizziness, increase heartache, that sort of thing, you see. 　　Anyway, what is we experience inside one of these Passage Graves clearly could be far more intense than everyday reality outside which made them very special places.　　But back to your question, Michael, as to whether these Graves were designed to be used by the living. Well, certainly, we have got to ask economical or calendar function. That seems pretty obvious, and I wanna go into more detail on that now.
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热门课程培训　TPO 12 Lecture 3　Music history　　Narrator　　Listen to part of a lecture in a music history class. The professor has been　　discussing Opera.
　　Professor　　The word opera means work, actually it means works. It’s the plural of the word　　opus from the Latin. And in Italian it refers in general to works of art. Opera　　Lyric or lyric of opera refers to what we think of as opera, the musical drama.　　Opera was commonplace in Italy for almost thousands of years before it　　became commercial as a venture. And during those years, several things　　happened primarily linguistic or thematic and both involving secularization.
　　Musical drama started in the churches. It was an educational tool. It was used　　primarily as a vehicle for teaching religion and was generally presented in the　　Latin, the language of the Christian Church which had considerable influence　　in Italy at that time. But the language of everyday life was evolving in Europe　　and at a certain point in the middle ages it was really only merchants, Socratics　　and clergy who can deal with Latin. The vast majority of the population used
　　their own regional vernacular in all aspects to their lives. And so in what is now　　Italy, operas quit being presented in Latin and started being presented in　　Italian. And once that happened, the themes of the opera presentations also　　started to change. And musical drama moved from the church to the plaza right　　outside the church. And the themes again, the themes changed. And opera　　was no longer about teaching religion as it was about satire and about　　expressing the ideas of society your government without committing yourself　　to writing and risking imprisonment or persecution, or what have you.
　　Opera, as we think of it, is of course a rather restive form. It is the melodious　　drama of ancient Greek theater, the term ‘melodious drama’ being shortened　　eventually to ‘melodrama’ because operas frequently are melodramatic, not to　　say unrealistic. And the group that put the first operas together that we have　　today even, were, they were…well…it was a group of men that included Gallo　　Leo’s father Venchesil, and they met in Florence he and a group of friends of　　the counts of the party and they formed what is called the Camarola Dayir　　Bardy. And they took classical theater and reproduced it in the Renaissance’s　　time. This…uh…this produced some of the operas that we have today.
　　Now what happened in the following centuries is very simple. Opera originated　　in Italy but was not confined to Italy any more than the Italians were. And so as　　the Italians migrated across Europe, they carried theater with them and opera　　specifically because it was an Italian form. What happened is that the major　　divide in opera that endures today took place. The French said opera　　auto-reflect the rhythm and Kevin of dramatic literature, bearing in mind that　　we are talking about the golden age in French literature. And so the music was　　secondary, if you will, to the dramatic Kevin of language, to the way the rhythm　　of language was used to express feeling and used to add drama and of course　　as a result instead of arias or solos, which would come to dominated Italian　　opera. The French relied on that what is the Italian called French Word 1 or　　French Word 2 in English. The lyrics were spoken, frequently to the　　accomp**nt of a harpsichord.
　　The French said you really cannot talk about real people who lived in opera　　and they relied on mythology to give them their characters and their plots,　　mythology, the past old traditions, the novels of chivalry or the epics of chivalry　　out of the middle Ages. The Italian said, no this is a great historical tool and　　what a better way to educate the public about Neo or Attalla or any number of　　people than to put them into a play they can see and listen to. The English　　appropriated opera after the French. Opera came late to England because all
　　theaters, public theaters were closed, of course, during their civil war. And it　　wasn’t until the restoration in 1660 that public theaters again opened and　　opera took off. The English made a major adjustment to opera and exported　　what they had done to opera back to Italy. So that you have this circle of　　musical influences, the Italians invented opera, the French adapted it, the　　English adopted it, and the Italians took it back.
　　It came to America late and was considered to elites for the general public. But　　Broadway musicals fulfilled a similar function for a great long while. George　　Champon wrote about opera, “If an extraterrestrial being or two appear before　　us and say, what is your society like, what is this Earth thing all about, you　　could do worse than take that creature to an opera.” Because opera does, after　　all, begin with a man and a woman and any motion
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托福听力：新托福TPO（1-24）听力原文文本TPO9
时间:13-05-03作者:randy27来源：
　　TPO 9　Conversation 1　　Listen to a conversation between a student and her professor.
　　P: Before we get started, I...I just wanted to say I’m glad you chose food　　science for your major courses study.
　　S: Yeah, it seems like a great industry to get involved with. I mean with the　　four-year degree in food science, I'll always be able to find a job.
　　P: You're absolutely right. Before entering academia, I worked as a scientist for　　several food manufacturers and for the US Food and Drug Administration. I　　even worked on a commercial fishing boat in Alaska a couple of summers　　while I was an undergraduate. We bring in the day's catch to a floating　　processor boat where the fish got cleaned, packaged and frozen right at sea.
　　S: That's amazing! As a matter of fact, I'm sort of interested in food packaging.
　　P: Well, for that, you'll need a strong background in physics, math and　　chemistry.
　　S: Those are my best subjects. For a long time, I was leading towards getting　　my degree in engineering.
　　P: Well, then you should have a problem. And fortunately, at this university, the　　department of food science offers a program in food packaging. Elsewhere,　　you might have to hammer courses together on your own.
　　S: I guess I like it a lot then. I am… so since my appointment today is to　　discuss my term paper topic, I wanted to ask, could I write about food　　packaging? I realize we're supposed to research food-born bacteria, but food　　packaging must play a role in all of that, right?
　　P: Absolutely! Maybe you should do some preliminary research on that.
　　S: I have! That's the problem. I'm overwhelmed.
　　P: Well, in your reading, did anything interest you in particular? I mean　　something you’d like to investigate.
　　S: well, I was surprised about the different types of packaging used for milk.
　　You know, clear plastic bottles, opaque bottles, carton board containers...
　　P: True! In fact, the type of packaging has something to do with the way milk's　　treated against bacteria.
　　S: Yeah, and I read a study that showed how light can give milk a funny flavor　　and decrease the nutritional value. And yet most milk bottles are unclear.　　What's up about that?
　　P: Well consumers like being able to visually examine the color of the milk.　　That might be one reason that opaque bottles haven't really called on. But that　　study... I'm sure there is more study on the subject. You shouldn't base your　　paper on only one study.
　　S: Maybe I should write about those opaque plastic bottles. Find out if there　　are any scientific reasons they aren't used more widely? Maybe opaque　　bottles aren't as good at keeping bacteria from growing in milk after the bottle　　has been opened for something… but where to begin researching this? I don't　　have a...
　　P: You know, there is a dairy not far from here in Chelsea. It was one of the　　first diaries to bottle milk in opaque plastic, but now they're using clear plastic　　began. And they're always very supportive of the university and our students,　　and if you want it...
　　S: Yeah, I like that idea.
　　TPO 9 Lecture 1　　Theater　　Listen to part of a lecture in a theater class　　Pro: As we have seen, the second half of the 18th century was an exciting　　time in Europe: it was not only an age of great invention, but social changes　　also led to a rise in all sorts of entertainment, from reading to museums, to　　travel. And finding himself in the middle of this excitement was an　　accomplished French painter named Philippe Jacques de Loutherbourg.　　Loutherbourg arrived in England in 1771, and immediately went to work as a　　site designer at the famous Drury Lane Theater in London. From his first 　　shows, Loutherbourg showed a knack for imagination and stage design, all in　　the interest of creating illusions that allowed the audience to suspend disbelief　　completely. He accomplished this by giving the stage a greater feeling of depth,　　which he did by cutting up some of the rigid background scenery, and placing it　　at various angles and distances from the audience. Another realistic touch was　　using three-dimensional objects on the set, like rocks and bushes as opposed　　to two-dimensional painted scenery. He also paid much more attention to　　lighting and sound than had been done before.　　Now, these sets were so elaborate that many people attended the theater　　more for them than for the actors or the stories. At the time, people were wild　　for travel and for exp but not everyone could afford it.　　Loutherbourg outdid himself however, with a show that he set up in his own　　home. He called it the "Eidophusikon".　　"Eidophusikon" means something like representation of nature, and that's　　exactly what he intended to do: create realistic moving scenes that change　　before the audiences' eyes. In this, he synthesized all his tricks from Drury　　Lane: mechanical motions, sound, light, other special effects to create, if you　　will, an early ** production.　　The "Eidophusikon" was Loutherbourg's attempt to release painting from the　　constraints of the picture frame. After all, even the most action field exciting　　painting can represent onl and any illusion of movement　　is gone after the first glance. But Loutherbourg, like other contemporary　　painters, wanted to add the dimension of time to his paintings. You know, the　　popular thinking is that Loutherbourg was influenced by landscape painting.　　But why can't we say that the "Eidophusikon" actually influenced the painters?　　At the very least we have to consider that it was more ... it was more of a　　mutual thing. We know, for example, that the important English landscape　　painter Thomas Gainsborough attended almost all of the yearly performances,　　and his later paintings are notable for their increased color and dynamic use of　　light. Loutherbourg's influence on the theater though, he was incredibly　　influential: the way he brought together design and lighting and sound as a　　unified feature of the stage, can easily be seen in English theater's subsequent　　emphasis on lighting and motion.　　Now, the "Eidophusikon" stage was actually a box: a few meters wide, a　　couple meters tall and a couple meters deep. That is, the action took place　　within this box. This was much smaller of course than the usual stage. But, it 　　also allowed Loutherbourg to concentrate the lighting to better effect. Also, the　　audience was in the dark, which wouldn't be a common feature of the theater　　until a hundred years later. The show consisted of a series of scenes, for　　example, a view of London from sunrise that changes　　mechanical figures, such as cattle, moved across the scene, and ships sailed　　along the river. But what really got people was the attention to detail, much like　　his work in Drury Lane. So, for example, he painted very realistic ships, and　　varied their size depending on their distance from the audience. Small boats　　moved more quickly across the foreground than larger ones did that were　　closer to the horizon. Other effects, like waves, were also very convincing.　　They reflected sunlight or moonlight depending on the time of day or night.　　Even the colors changed as they would in nature. Sound and light were　　important in ** his productions realistic. He used a great number of lights,　　and he was able to change colors of light by using variously colored pieces of　　glass, to create effects like passing clouds that suddenly change in color.　　Furthermore, he used effects to make patterns of shadow and light, rather than　　using the uniform lighting that was common at the time. And many of the　　sound effects he pioneered are still in use today, like creating thunder by　　pulling on one of the corners of a thin copper sheet. One of his most popular　　scenes was of a storm. And there is a story that on one occasion, an actual　　storm passed over head during the show. And some people went outside, and　　they claimed Loutherbourg's thunder was actually better than the real thunder.
　　TPO 9 Lecture 2　　Environmental Science　　Listen to a part of lecture in an environmental science class.
　　Lecturer: So since we're around the topic of global climate change and its　　effects, in Alaska, in the northern Arctic part of Alaska, over the last thirty years　　or so, temperature has increased about half a degree Celsius per decade, and　　scientists have noticed that there've been changes in surface vegetation　　during this time. Shrubs are increasing in the "tundra". Tundra is flat land with　　very little vegetation. Just a few species of plants grow there because the　　temperature is very cold, and there's not much precipitation. And because of　　the cold temperatures, the tundra has two layers: top layer, which is called the 　　active layer, is frozen in the winter and spring, but thaws in the summer.　　Beneath this active layer is the second layer called "permafrost", which is　　frozen all year around, and is impermeable to water.
　　Female Student: So because of the permafrost, none of the plants that grow　　there can have deep roots, can they?
　　Lecturer: No, and that's one of the reasons that shrubs survive in the Arctic.　　Shrubs are little bushes. They're not tall and being low in the ground protect　　them from the cold and wind. And their roots don't grow very deep, so the　　permafrost doesn't interfere with their growth. OK? Now since the　　temperatures have been increasing in Arctic Alaska, the growth of shrubs has　　increased. And this is presented to climate scientists with a puzzle...
　　Male Student: I'm sorry, when you say the growth of shrubs has increased, do　　you mean the shrubs are bigger, or that there are more shrubs?
　　Lecturer: Good question! And the answer is both. The size of the shrubs has　　increased and shrub cover has spread to what was previously shrub-free　　tundra. Ok, so what's the puzzle? Warmer temperatures should lead to　　increased vegetation growth, right? Well, the connections are not so simple.　　The temperature increase has occurred during the winter and spring, not　　during the summer. But the increase in shrubs has occurred in the summer. So　　how can increase temperatures in the winter and spring result in increased　　shrub growth in the summer? Well, it may be biological processes that occur in　　the soil in the winter, that cause increased shrub growth in the summer, and　　here's how: there are "microbes", microscopic organisms that live in the soil.　　These microbes enable the soil to have more nitrogen, which plants need to　　live and they remain quite active during the winter. There're two reasons for　　this: first, they live in the active layer, which, remember, contains water that　　doesn't penetrate the permafrost. Second, most of the precipitation in the　　Arctic is in the form of snow. And the snow, which blankets the ground in the　　winter, actually has an insulating effect on the soil beneath it. And it allows the　　temperature of the soil to remain warm enough for microbes to remain active.　　So there's been increase in nutrient production in the winter. And that's what's　　responsible for the growth of shrubs in the summer and their spread to new　　areas of the tundra. Areas with more new nutrients are the areas with the　　largest increase in shrubs.
　　Female student: But, what about run-off in the spring, when the snow finally　　melts? Won't the nutrients get washed away? Spring thaw always washes　　away soil, doesn't it?
　　Lecturer: Well, much of the soil is usually still frozen during peak run-off. And　　the nutrients are deep down in the active layer anyway, not high up near the　　surface, which is the part of the active layer most affected by run-off. But as I　　was about to say, there's more to the story. The tundra is windy, and the snow　　is blown across the tundra, it's caught by shrubs. And deep snow drifts often　　form around shrubs. And we've already mentioned the insulating effect of　　snow. So that extra warmth means even more microbial activity, which means　　even more food for the shrubs, which means even more shrubs and more　　snow around etc.. It's a circle, a loop. And because of this loop, which is　　promoted by warmer temperatures in winter and spring, well, it looks like the　　tundra may be turning into shrub land.
　　Female student: But will it be long term? I mean maybe the shrubs will be　　abundant for a few years, and then it'll change back to tundra.
　　Lecturer: Well, shrub expansion has occurred in other environments, like　　semiarid grassland, and tall grass prairies. And shrub expansion in these　　environments does seem to persist, almost to the point of causing a shift. Once　　is established, shrub land thrives, particularly in the Arctic, because Arctic　　shrubs are good at taking advantage of increased nutrients in the soil, better　　than other Arctic plants.　　TPO 9 　Conversation 2　　Listen to a conversation between a student and a librarian employee.　　S: Excuse me. Can you help me with something?
　　L: I'll do my best. What do you need?
　　S: Well, I've received a letter in my mailbox saying that I'm supposed to return　　a book that I checked out back in January, it's call "Modern Social Problems".　　But because I'm writing my senior thesis, I'm supposed to be able to keep the　　book all semester.
　　L: So you signed up for extended borrowing privileges?
　　S: Yeah.
　　L: But we are still asking you to bring the book back?
　　S: En-hen.
　　L: Well, let me take a look and see what the computer says. The title was　　"Modern Social Problems"?
　　S: Yeah.
　　L: OK. Oh, I see, it's been recalled. You can keep it all semester as long as no　　one else　　requests it. But, someone else has. It looks like one of the professors in the　　sociology　　department requested it. So you have to bring it back, even though you've got　　extended borrowing privileges. You can check out the book again when it's　　returned in a couple of weeks.
　　S: But I really need this book right now.
　　L: Do you need all of it or is there a certain section or chapter you're working　　with?
　　S: I guess there is one particular chapter I've been using lately for a section of　　my thesis. Why?
　　L: Well, you can photocopy up to one chapter of the book. Why don't you do　　that for the chapter you're working on right now? And by the time you need the　　rest of the book, maybe it will have been returned. We can even do the　　photocopy for you because of the circumstances.
　　S: Oh, well, that would be great.
　　L: I see you've got some books there. Is that the one you were asked to return?
　　S: No, I left it in my dorm room. These are books I need to check out today. Is it　　Ok if I bring that one by in a couple of days?
　　L: Actually, you need to return it today. That is if you want to check out those　　books today. That's our policy.
　　S: Oh, I didn't know that.
　　L: Yeah, not a lot of people realize that. In fact, every semester we get a few　　students who have their borrowing privileges suspended completely because　　they haven't returned books. They're allowed to use books only in the library.　　They're not allowed to check anything out because of unreturned books.
　　S: That's not good. I guess I should hand back onto the dorm right now then.
　　L: But, before you go, what you should do is fill out a form requesting the book　　back in two weeks. You don't want to waste any time getting it back.
　　S: Thanks a lot. Now I don't feel quite so bad about having to return the book.
　　TPO 9 Lecture 3　　Geology　　Lecturer: So, continuing our discussion of desert lakes, now I want to focus on　　what's known as the "Empty Quarter". The "Empty Quarter" is a huge area of　　sand that covers about a quarter of the Arabian Peninsula. Today it's pretty　　desolate, barren and extremely hot. But there've been times in the past when　　monsoon rains soaked the Empty Quarter and turned it from a desert into　　grassland that was dotted with lakes and home to various animals. There were　　actually two periods of rain and lake formation: the first one began about　　35000 and the second one dates from about 10000 years ago.
　　Female Student: Excuse me, Professor. But I'm confused. Why would lakes　　form in the desert? It's just sand, after all.
　　Lecturer: Good question! We know from modern day desert lakes, like Lake　　Eyre, South Australia, that under the right conditions, lakes do form in the　　desert. But the Empty Quarter lakes disappeared thousands of years ago.　　They left behind their beds or basins as limestone formations that we can still　　see today. They look like low-lying, white or grey builds, long, narrow hills with　　flat tops, barely a meter high. A recent study of some of the formations　　presents some new theories about the area's past. Keep in mind though that　　this study only looked at 19 formations. And about a thousand have been　　documented. So there's a lot more work to be done. 　　According to the study, two factors were important for lake formation in the　　Empty Quarter: first the rains that fell there were torrential. So it would've been　　impossible for all the water to soak into the ground. Second, as you know,　　sand dunes contain other types of particles, besides sand, including clay and　　silt. Now, when the rain fell, water ran down the sides of the dunes, carrying　　clay and silt particles with it. And wherever these particles settled, they formed　　a pan, a layer that water couldn't penetrate. Once this pan formed, further　　run-off collected, and formed a lake.　　Now, the older lakes, about half the formations, the ones started forming　　35000 years ago, the limestone formation we see, they're up to a kilometer　　long, but only a few meters wide, and they're scattered along the desert floor,　　in valleys between the dunes. So, the theory is, the lakes formed there, along　　the desert floor, in these long narrow valleys. And we know, because of what　　we know about similar ancient desert lakes, we know that the lakes didn't last　　very long, from a few months to a few years on average. As for the more　　recent lakes, the ones from 10000 years ago, well, they seemed to have been　　smaller, and so may have dried up more quickly. Another difference, very　　important today for distinguishing between older lake beds and newer ones, is　　the location of the limestone formations. The more recent beds are high up in　　the dunes. Why these differences? Well, there are some ideas about that, and　　they have to do with the shapes of the sand dunes, when the lakes were　　formed. 37000 years ago, the dunes were probably nicely rounded at the top,　　so the water just ran right down their sides to the desert floor. But there were　　thousands of years of wind between the two rainy periods, reshaping the　　dunes. So, during the second rainy period, the dunes were kind of chopped up　　at the top, full of hollows and ridges, and these hollows would've captured the　　rain right there on the top.　　Now, in grassland of Lake Ecosystem, we'd expect to find fossils from a variety　　of animals, and numerous fossils have been found at least at these particular　　sites. But, where did these animals come from? Well, the theory that has been　　suggested is that they migrated in from nearby habitats where they were　　already living. Then as the lakes dried up, they died out. The study makes a　　couple of interesting points about the fossils, which I hope will be looked at in　　future studies. At older lake sites, their fossil remains from hippopotamuses,　　water buffalo, animals that spend much of their lives standing in water, and　　also, fossils of cattle. However, at the sites of the more recent lakes, there’re　　only cattle fossils, additional evidence for geologists that these lakes were　　probably smaller, shallower, because cattle only use water for drinking. So 　　they survive on much less. Interestingly, there are cl but,　　no fossils of fish. We're not sure why. Maybe there is a problem with the water.　　Maybe it was too salty. That's certainly true of other desert lakes.
　　TPO 9 Lecture 4　　Linguistic　　Listen to part of a lecture in a linguistics class. The professor has been　　discussing Animal communication systems.
　　L: OK, so last time, we covered the dances honey bees due to indicate where　　food can be found and the calls and sounds of different types of birds. Today,　　I'd like to look at some communication systems found in mammals, particularly　　in primates, such as orangutans, chimpanzees, gorillas... Yes, Thomas?
　　T: Excuse me, Professor. But when you talk about gorilla language, do you　　mean like, those experiments where humans taught them sign language or a　　language like...
　　L: OK, wait just a minute. Now, who in this class heard me use the word　　"language"? No one I hope. What we're talking about here, are systems of　　communication, all right?
　　T: Oh, sorry, communication, right. But could you maybe, like, clarify with the　　differences?
　　L: Of course, that's a fair question. OK, well, to start with, let's make it clear　　that language is a type of communication, not the other way around. OK, so all　　communication systems, language included, have certain features in common.　　For example, the signals used to communicate from the bee's dance　　movements, to the word and sentences found in human languages. All these　　signals convey meaning. And all communication systems serve a purpose, a　　pragmatic function of some sort. Warning of danger perhaps or offering other　　needed information. But there're several features peculiar to human language　　that have, for the most part, never been found in the communication system of　　any other species. For one thing, learn ability. Animals have instinctive　　communication systems. When a dog, a puppy gets to certain age, it's able to 　　bark. It barks without having to learn how from other dogs, it just barks. But　　much of human language has to be learned from other humans. What else　　makes human language unique? What makes it different from animal　　communication? Debber?
　　D: How about grammar? Like having verbs, nouns, adjectives?
　　L: OK, that's another feature. And it's a good example...
　　D: I mean I mention this cause like in my biology class last year, I kind of　　remember talking about a study on prairie dogs, where, I think the researchers　　claimed that the warning cries of prairie dogs constitute language, because　　they have this, different parts of speech. You know, like nouns, to name the　　type of predator they spotted, adjectives to describe its size and shape,　　verbs..., but now it seems like...
　　L: All right, hold on a moment. I'm familiar with the study you're talking about.　　And for those of you who don't know, prairie dogs are not actually dogs.　　They're type of rodent who burrows in the ground and the grasslands of the　　west United States and Mexico. And in this study, the researchers looked at　　the high-pitched barks a prairie dog makes when it spots predator. And from　　this they made some pretty.., well, they made some claims about these calls　　qualifying as an actual language, with its own primitive grammar. But actually,　　these warning calls are no different from those found among certain types of　　monkeys. Well, let's not even get into the question whether concepts like noun　　and verb can be meaningfully applied to animal communication. Another thing　　that distinguishes a real language is a property we call "discreteness". In other　　words, messages are built up out of smaller parts, sentences out of words,　　words out of individual sounds, etc. Now maybe you could say that the prairie　　dog's message is built from smaller parts, like say for example, our prairie　　dogs spot a predator, a big coyote approaching rapidly. So the prairie dog　　makes a call that means "coyote", then one that means "large", and then　　another one to indicate its speed. But you really suppose it makes any　　difference what order these calls come in? No. But the discrete units that make　　up language can be put together in different ways. Those smaller parts can be　　used to form an infinite number of messages, including messages that are　　completely novel, that have never been expressed before. For example, we　　can differentiate between: "A large coyote moves fast." and say "Move the　　large coyote fast." or "Move fast, large coyote.", and I truly doubt whether　　anyone has ever uttered either of these sentences before. Human language is 　　productive and open-ended communication system, whereas no other　　communication system has this property. And another feature of language　　that's not displayed by any form of animal communication is what we call　　"displacement". That is, language is abstract enough that we can talk about　　things that aren't present here and now. Things like "My friend Jo is not in the　　room." or "It will probably rain next Thursday." Prairie dogs may be able to tell　　you about a hawk at circling over head right now, but they never show any　　inclination to describe the one they saw last week.
责编:randy27&&&
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