科学家计算寒冷暗物质移动速度极限(图)
来源：凤凰科技日 07:27
无处不在的线索。　　凤凰科技讯 北京时间10月9日消息， 新科学家报道，如果暗物质粒子从未形成现在这样的团块，那么它们将在太空里缓慢的移动，速度不超过54米每秒。这项发现是“寒冷暗物质”特征的少数已知值之一，暗物质被认为是宇宙里最常见的物质类型。　　基于恒星和星系的运动，我们知道宇宙充满了各种我们看不见的物质。天文学家计算称这种不可见的暗物质组成了宇宙物质的80%，现在大部分暗物质都聚成一团形成环绕星系的巨大光环。　　尽管我们能够看见暗物质的引力效应，但它们并不会与正常物质发生相互作用，因此我们对它的特性的了解非常有限。目前最好的理论认为大多数暗物质应该是“寒冷的”，这意味着它是由移动速度低于光速的粒子组成。　　据称，随着早期宇宙热汤逐渐冷却，自由游离的暗物质粒子相互合并，它们的引力开始拖拽气体尘埃形成第一批恒星和星系。暗物质粒子移动的速度影响了它们形成团块的难易程度，而速度较快的物质将无法形成我们今天观测到的大规模结构。　　现在，美国纽约锡拉丘兹大学的克里斯蒂安·阿门德里兹-皮肯（Cristian Armendáriz-Picón）和贾亚斯·尼拉卡塔（Jayanth Neelakanta）首次计算出未成团块的暗物质粒子需要多快的速度才能以实现在宇宙里随机飘荡。研究小组研究了宇宙历史不同时期物质是如何分布的。对宇宙最早产生的光的光谱分析以及星系团的调查，研究人员分别测定了较小规模和较大规模里物质的分步。他们计算出早期宇宙里暗物质的移动速度至少需要多快才能创造出现在可观察到的大规模结构，然后推测如果这些粒子没有合并成块，它们现在移动的速度应该是多快。
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诺奖得主发现“时间晶体” 永动机或可真实存在
物理学家探索了这样一个概念：冷态的物质最终可以形成重复的模式。
“永动机”这个词–从十九世界中期开始，科学家们就嘲笑这个概念。“诺贝尔物理学获奖者” Frank Wilczek似乎和这个概念无关，但是如果Wilczek关于对称性和时间的本质的最新观点正确的话，科学家们就会提出：虽然永远都没有能量输出的，但是永动机可以真实存在。Frank Wilczek提出：物质可以形成一个“时间晶体”，它的结构可以随着一个普通的晶体进行周期性的重复，但是这种重复是发生在时间上而不是空间上。这样的晶体将会代表物质未知的一种状态，这种物质的状态可能在早期宇宙冷却，失去原始的对称性的时候出现过。
加州技术研究所的宇宙学家Sean Carroll 说：“这些论文本身就完全受人尊敬，而且毋庸置疑的正确和有趣。”
Wilczek是麻省理工学院的一名教授，因他在发展中的量子色动力学中的开创性的工作而闻名。量子色动力学解释原子核内部的粒子怎么联合在一起。他说他最新的观点是来源于两年前当他教群论的一堂课上。群论是数学的分支，用矩阵来描述基本粒子们的内在对称性和对晶体进行分类。处于平衡状态的液体或气体，是由均匀分布的粒子构成的，呈现出完美的空间对称性–它们看起来每个地方，每个方向上都一样。
在处于能量非常低或最低的时候，大多数物质不能保持对称性，而会结晶。晶体的规则几何形状缺少完整的空间对称性；结构不会处处相同。因为晶体在能量非常低的时候，它的对称性减少了，物理学家说，这些晶体出现自发对称性破坏。在许多物理领域里也发生相同的过程。一种对称性的破坏，可以由希格斯玻色子指示出来。希格斯玻色子在大型强子对撞机里被捕获，可以用来解释亚原子粒子为什么有质量。
Wilczek 说他开始思考普通的三维晶体通过增加额外的一个时间维度变成四维晶体的概念。一个时间晶体能自发破坏Wilczek所称的“对称性之母“–时间平移的对称性。时间平移对称性指的是物理规律不会依赖于时间起点的选择。一个时间晶体它可以随着时间改变，但是会持续回到它开始时的相同形态，就如一个钟的移动的指针周期性的回到它的原始位置。
与普通的钟或者其他周期性的过程不同的是，时间水晶和空间水晶一样会是最低限度的能量的一种状态。乍一看，这提出了个矛盾。时间水晶根据定义来讲，为了破坏时间平移对称性，必须随着时间改变。但是拥有最低能量的体系“通常”不能移动。如果它可以移动，那么额外的能量仍然会被输出，直到这个体系达到真正的最低能量即静止的状态。
“起先，我认为时间晶体这个概念简单，也是不可能的，”Wilczek在坦佩的亚利桑那州立大学的一个近期讲座中写到：“现在我认为这既不简单也并非不可能。”
他与Shapere 证明物质可以在静止状态下，总能量为零。他们用数学重新表达动能(0.5倍的质量乘以速度的平方)的普通定义，将动能定义为不同的，但是同样有效的值，这个值是依赖于可供选择的一个速度（例如，增加一个额外项如速度的四次方，而改变普通的动能）。
一旦启动，时间晶体不需要外在的力去保持运动而能永远运动下去。这类永动机不会违背任何已知的物理定律，因为没有起先加入的能量，也就没有任何可以从这体系中输出的能量。这类体系甚至可被用于传递信息。在体系周围的其他所有物质都消逝后，体系仍存留着。
Wilczek说，现代科技最接近时间晶体的物质是：携带电流的超导体，它在低温下运载移动的持久电流。在一根普通的超导电缆里，电流是恒定的，如果实际随着时间的改变而什么都不变的话，超导体并不符合一个真正的晶体的概念。但是如果工程师能够构建出一个波形分布的带电粒子超导体而不是均匀分布的带电粒子的超导体，那么随着电流流动，电流向前传递，这持久电流就会随着时间的改变而改变。
Armendáriz Picón说，时间晶体的概念，可以来阐明随时间不对称的自然现象怎么用对称理论来描述。它也可以用于宇宙的起源和进化。“你可以认为这些[时间]晶体是一种新形态的物质，这物质可用来解释未解的现象，比如说现阶段的宇宙加速膨胀。“
Wilczek 警示说：理论尚处于早期阶段。他在近期的一个演讲中提到，对物理学家来说，时间晶体犹如探索新大陆。但他补充道，这新大陆是不是一个新的世界，或是南极洲，时间会说明一切。
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Large-Scale Structure Formation via Quantum Fluctuations and Gravitational Instability
DOI: , PP. 634-656
Keywords: ,,,
review of the status of the universe as described by the standard cosmological model
combined with the inflationary paradigm. Their key features and predictions, consistent
with the WMAP (Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropies Probe) and Planck Probe 2013 results,
provide a significant mechanism to generate the primordial gravitational waves and
the density perturbations which grow over time, and later become the large-scale
structure of the universe—from the quantum fluctuations in the early era to the
structure observed 13.7 billion later, our epoch. In the single field slow-roll
paradigm, the primordial quantum fluctuations in the inflaton field itself translate
into the curvature and density perturbations which grow over time via gravitational
instability. High density regions continuously attract more matter from the surrounding
space, the high density regions become more and more dense in time while depleting
the low density regions. At late times the highest density regions peaks collapse
into the large structure of the universe, whose gravitational instability effects
are observed in the clustering features of galaxies in the sky. Thus, the origin
of all structure in the universe probably comes from an early era where the universe
was filled with a scalar field and nothing else.
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